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“The capacity to
blunder slightly is the
real marvel of DNA.
Without this special
attribute, we would still
be anaerobic bacteria and
there would be no music.”
—Lewis Thomas, Physician, author
DNA Analysis
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lMDm9IC4-2c
Students will learn:
 That DNA is a long-chain polymer found
in nucleated cells, which contain genetic
information.
 That DNA can be used to identify or
clear potential suspects in crimes.
 How DNA is extracted and
characterized.
 How to apply the concepts of RFLP,
PCR, and STRs to characterize DNA.
 The role that statistics plays in
determining the probability that two people
would have the same sequence in a
fragment of DNA.
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DNA Analysis
Students will be able to:

Explain that DNA is a long molecule, tightly
packed in the form of a chromosome with
genetic material wrapped around it.
 Isolate and extract DNA from cells.
 Describe the function and purpose of a
restriction enzyme.
 Calculate probabilities of identity using STR.
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Historical Information

James Watson and Francis Crick—1953
discovered the configuration of the DNA molecule

Ray White—1980 describes first polymorphic
RFLP marker

Alec Jeffreys—1985 isolated DNA markers and
called them DNA fingerprints

Kary Mullis—1985 developed PCR testing

1988—FBI starts DNA casework

1991—first STR paper

1998—FBI launches CODIS database
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People of Historical
Significance
James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins
jointly received the Nobel Prize in 1962 for their
determination of the structure of DNA. What is
interesting about this fact is that Rosalind Franklin had
as much to do with the discovery as the other three
gentlemen with her work with X-ray crystallography.
She died of cancer and could not be honored for her
work. Find out more at Chemical Achievers:
http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/pharmaceuticals/watson-crick.html
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General DNA Information
 Double helix—two coiled DNA strands
 Composed of nucleotides—units containing a sugar
molecule (deoxyribose), phosphate group and a
nitrogen-containing base
 In humans, the order of these bases is 99.9% the
same.
 Four bases
 Adenine
 Cytosine
 Guanine
 Thymine
 Bases always pair A to T and G to C
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Where Is DNA Found?
 Genes are portions of DNA that code for
specific proteins
 DNA is found in all nucleated body
cells—white blood cells, semen, saliva,
urine, hair root, teeth, bone, tissue
 Most abundant in buccal (cheek) cells
 Red blood cells have no nuclei; and
therefore, no nuclear DNA
 DNA obtained from blood comes from
white blood cells
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Blood Cells
Saliva
Sperm
Fingernail
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Skin Cells
Hair Root
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Blood
At one time, blood at a crime
scene was significant to
investigators for its presence
alone — bloodstains and spatters
often tell their own story of
events. But today scientists can
perform further tests, including
blood typing and DNA analysis,
that can help identify the victim
or offender. Pictured here is a
color-enhanced image of blood
cells and platelets, magnified
over 5,200 times by a scanning
electron microscope.
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Chapter 11
Saliva
Investigators can extract DNA
from saliva left behind on
items such as cigarettes,
envelopes or drinking straws
at the crime scene to help
identify their killer or victim.
One suspect was connected to
the World Trade Center
bombing, for example, after
authorities matched his DNA
with that from saliva on an
envelope delivered by one of
the conspirators. This saliva
has been magnified 40 times.9
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Sperm
In cases of rape and other sexual
crimes, the seminal fluid left by
the attacker can provide
important evidence. Since sperm
remains alive for only a short
period of time, its condition can
indicate the time of the attack;
such samples can also provide
information on blood type and
now identity, through DNA.
Pictured here is a colorenhanced image of sperm,
magnified over 3,000 times by a
scanning electron microscope.
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Fingernail
While their utility is still under debate, fingernails, like
fingerprints, are thought to be unique and thus useful in
linking suspects to crime scenes. This is because the
underside of fingernails and toenails have grooves, called
striations, that form a pattern unique to each finger or toe;
nails from one individual match up to their owner much like
bullets fired from the same gun. Fingernail evidence has
been used in several U.S. cases since the mid-1970s.
Pictured here is a section of fingernail magnified over 300
times by a scanning electron microscope.
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Hair Root
Forensic scientists can analyze the DNA found
in the cells of a single hair root to identify their
killer or victim. Investigators often find hairs
with roots attached at crime scenes, indicating
a struggle took place. Pictured here is a colorenhanced image of a hair root, magnified over
90 times by a scanning electron microscope.
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Human Skin
DNA can sometimes be obtained from skin cells that an
attacker unwittingly leaves beneath the fingernails of a
victim during a fight. In one case, police found a victim
with hair clutched in her hand and skin under her nails;
investigators were able to use this evidence to link her
husband to the crime. Pictured here is a color-enhanced
image of a healthy skin surface, magnified nearly 1,000
times by a scanning electron microscope.
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DNA Typing
DNA typing is a method in which DNA
is converted into a series of bands that
ultimately distinguish each individual.
Only one-tenth of a single percent of
DNA (about 3 million bases) differs
from one person to the next. Scientists
use these regions to generate a DNA
profile of an individual.
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Non-Coding Regions
 3 percent of the human DNA sequences
code for proteins
 97 percent is non-coding and is
repetitive; repeating the same sequence
over and over
 50 percent of the human genome has
interspersed repetitive sequences
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Uses of DNA Profiling
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To identify potential suspects
To exonerate individuals
To identify crime and casualty victims
To establish paternity
To match organ donors
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DNA TYPING
“Fingerprinting”
 RFLP—Restriction Fragment Length
Polymorphism
 PCR—Polymerase Chain Reaction
 STR—Short Tandem Repeats
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RFLP—Restriction Fragment
Length Polymorphisms
Restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA into
smaller fragments that can then be separated
and characterized for identification
 Isolate—separate DNA from the cell
 Cut—using restriction enzymes to make shorter
base strands
 Sort—by size using electrophoresis
 Analyze—the specific alleles for identification
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PCR—Polymerase
Chain Reaction
PCR is a technique used for making
copies of a defined segment of a DNA
molecule. This can be valuable when
the amount of evidence is minimal.
Millions of copies of DNA can be made
from a single speck of blood.
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PCR—Polymerase Chain
Reaction Procedure
 Heat the DNA strands, causing the
strands to separate (unzip).
 Cool the mixture and add a primer, a short
sequence of base pairs that will add to its
complementary sequence on the DNA
strand.
 Finally, add a DNA polymerase and a
mixture of free nucleotides to the
separated strands. Heat again to around
75° C for the completion.
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PCR—Polymerase
Chain Reaction
The outcome is a doubling of the
number of DNA strands. Heating,
cooling, and strand rebuilding is
repeated typically 25 to 30 times,
yielding more than one million copies
of the original DNA molecule. Each
cycle takes less than two minutes
from start to finish.
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Advantages of PCR
 Minute amounts of DNA may be used for amplification.
 DNA degraded to fragments only a few hundred base
pairs in length can serve as effective templates for
amplification.
 Large numbers of copies of specific DNA sequences
can be amplified simultaneously with multiplex PCR
reactions.
 Commercial kits are now available for easy PCR
reaction setup and amplification.
Contaminant DNA, such as fungal and bacterial
sources, will not amplify because human-specific
primers are used. However, human contamination can
be a problem.
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Electrophoresis
 A technique used to separate DNA
fragments.
 An electrical current is moved through a
gel substance causing molecules to sort
by size.
 The smaller, lighter molecules will move
the furthest on the gel.
 After developing, the fragments can be
visualized for characterization.
animation
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Electrophoresis
Pipette the DNA.
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Electrophoresis
Load DNA into the
gel wells.
Electrophoresis video
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Electrophoresis
 Run the gel.
 Observe and
compare bands
of DNA.
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X-ray of results
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Short Tandem Repeats
(STR)
STR is another method of DNA typing.
STR’s are locations (loci) on the
chromosome that contain short sequences
of 2 to 5 bases that repeat themselves in the
DNA molecule. The advantages of this
method are that it provides greater
discrimination, requires less time, a smaller
sample size, and the DNA is less
susceptible to degradation.
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Karyotype- show number and
appearance of an organism’s
chromosomes. Genes are located
on the chromosomes.
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Short Tandem Repeats
(STR) Procedure
 Extract the gene TH01 from the sample.
(TH01 has seven human variants with a
repeating sequence of A-A-T-G)
 Amplify the sample by means of PCR
 Separate by electrophoresis
 Examine the distance the STR migrates to
determine the number of times TH01 repeats
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Short Tandem Repeats
(STR)
 Each person has two STR types for
TH01—one inherited from each parent.
 By continuing the process with additional
STRs from other genes, you can narrow
down the probability of DNA belonging to
only one person.
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Short Tandem Repeats
(STR)
 STR typing is visualized by peaks shown on
a graph. Each represents the size of the
DNA fragment.
 The possible alleles are numbered for each
loci.
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Profiler Plus Allelic Ladders
VWA
D3S1358
AMEL
D8S1179
D5S818
FGA
D21S11
D13S317
D18S51
D7S820
COfiler Allelic Ladders
D3S1358
AMEL
D16S539
TH01
TPOX
CSF1PO
D7S820
STR Example
Determining Probability
Databases have been established that
determine how often a particular allele
on a loci appears in a given population.
By increasing the number of alleles on
different loci the probability of having
two people with the exact combination
becomes miniscule.
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DNA Interactive
The website below has a STR
animation demonstration. Click on
human identification, profiling and then
on the third circle called Today’s DNA
Profiling to see the demonstration.
http://www.dnai.org/d/index.html
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Three Possible Outcomes
 Match—The DNA profile appears the
same. Lab will determine the frequency.
 Exclusion—The genotype comparison
shows profile differences that can only be
explained by the two samples originating
from different sources.
 Inconclusive—The data does not
support a conclusion as to whether the
profiles match.
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Types of DNA
Nuclear
Mitochondrial
 found in the nucleus
 found in the cytoplasm
 constitutes 23 pairs of  is inherited only from
chromosomes inherited
mother
from both parents
 each cell contains
 each cell contains only
hundreds to thousands
one nuclei
of mitochondria
 can be found in skeletal
remains
Nuclear DNA is present in the head of the sperm. Mitochondrial DNA is present in the
tail. At conception, the head of the sperm enters the egg and unites with the nucleus.
The tail falls off, losing the father’s mitochondrial DNA.
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Mitochondrial DNA
 Analysis of mDNA is more:
 rigorous
 time consuming
 costly than nucleic testing of DNA
 mDNA is constructed in a circular or loop
 37 genes are involved in mitochondrial
energy generation
 Is used when nuclear DNA typing is not
possible
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FBI’s CODIS DNA Database
Combined DNA Index System
 Used for linking serial crimes and
unsolved cases with repeat offenders
 Launched October 1998
 Links all 50 states
 Requires >4 RFLP markers and/or 13
core STR markers
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The Future
 Greater automation of the DNA typing process
 Use of SNP’s—single nucleotide polymorphism
which measures a one nucleotide change or
difference from one individual to another. More
sites are needed to differentiate between
individuals (30 to 50 SNPs to attain the
frequencies of the 13 STR loci), but it can be
done with robots and automation.
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People in the News
Sir Alec Jeffreys is credited with DNA profiling using
RFLP. In September of 1984 after years of work, he
saw his first series of blots on an X-ray. The
technique was first used in forensics, when in 1985
he was asked by police to confirm the rape
confession of 17 year old Richard Buckland, who was
denying a rape of another young woman. The DNA
from Buckland and the DNA taken from the victims
eliminated him as a suspect. Jefferys then used
samples from other suspects to later convict Colin
Pitchfork whose DNA did match.
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More about DNA
For additional information about DNA
and some famous cases, check out
Court TV’s Crime Library at:
www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/forensics/dna/1.html
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