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1/17/2014 What is a paradigm? Paradigms Frameworks to consider, analyze, and interpret psychopathology Three to consider • Genetic • Neuroscience • Cognitive - Behavioral The Environment’s role • Our environment, what we eat, do, and experience, controls which and whether genes are turned off or on and what they do • Without the genetic capability we could never do certain things, but without an environmental trigger, the gene might lie dormant, unexpressed • A framework to think about and study any topic • Basic assumptions which underlie any scientific investigation • A perspective through which we can decide how and what information we gather and then, how we interpret it The Genetic Paradigm • Fast developing • Loads of new information since the discovery of DNA’s stricture (1953) and the sequencing of the human genome (2003) • Now we know that: 1) virtually all behavior is influenced by genes, and 2) the environment influences how genes are expressed Genetic basics • Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs • Each chromosome contains many genes which are composed of DNA • We have less than 25,000 genes • The number is unimportant • How they are strung together (sequenced) and how they make proteins which control whether genes become active (gene expression) is what counts 1 1/17/2014 The Big Point Back to Psychopathology • Genes and the environment interact with each other • As we go through our lives we encounter certain things (i.e. stress, trauma, toxins, exercise) which can cause certain genes to become active or to turn off • Genes are not destiny • No md is controlled by one gene • Instead they are polygenetic – influenced by a number of genes expressing themselves as they interact with the environment • We don’t inherit mental illnesses • We develop mental illnesses from the interaction between genes and the environment Heritability But don’t forget …. The extent to which variability in a behavior/mental disorder in a population can be explained by genetics Other factors • Shared environments – school siblings go to, neighborhood, church, family vacations • Nonshared environments – friends an individual has, girl friends/boyfriends, hobbies, extracurricular activities especially crucial re mds 1) estimates run from 0 (genetics plays no role – what language you speak) to 1 (genetics controls everything – tongue rolling) 2) refers only to large groups of people (populations) not individuals Behavior genetics • How do our genes influence what we do? • As stated earlier, genetics is not destiny genotype – our total genetic potential phenotype – what we are subject to change depending on our interactions with our environment 2 1/17/2014 For example, IQ in differing environments • If a child lives in a challenging environment (low SES), the major factor in IQ is the environment • In a more stimulating environment, genetics are more important • Tough circumstances hurt more than good help Gene & Environment Interactions • A person’s sensitivity to an environmental event is shaped by genes • Often an adverse reaction (depression) requires both a genetic vulnerability and a traumatic event New Zealand abused children & depression Molecular Genetics: getting to the source • Identifying which specific genes influence which traits, abilities, characteristics, etc. • Polymorphism – differences in individual genes • Single nucleotide polymorphisms – differences caused by one DNA sequence • Copy number variations – errors in copying DNA, whether additions or deletions Epigenetics – passing on traits without genes • Cross-fostered rat moms engaged in lots of nurturing maternal behaviors, if they received such treatment, even if they lacked the applicable genetic marker • And so did the next generation! • But the affection triggered a gene which facilitated such behavior. It goes the other way too! • Genes encourage the choice of certain environments • Reciprocal Gene-Environment Interaction • Worse yet, these environments or behaviors can then cause certain outcomes – like depression or alcoholism Genetic Paradigm Overview • Genes in conjunction with the environment clearly play a role in developing some mds • But how do genes and environments do this? • Animal studies offer clues • How genes/environments influence the brain shows great promise for understanding. 3 1/17/2014 Neuroscience • Paradigm assumes that psychopathology is caused by problems with the brain or nervous system • Three aspects: 1) Neurons and neurotransmitters 2) the brain, and 3) the Neuroendocrine System Neurotransmitters • Tiny packets of chemicals that bridge the gap (synaptic cleft) between two neurons • Attach to special receptors on the dendrite of the receiving cell • These events attempt to influence the receiving neuron to send out its own message (excitatory) or to refrain from sending a message (inhibitory) “Big” neurotransmitters • Dopamine – involved with schiz, depression • Serotonin – involved with depression, impulse control, and sleep • Norepinephrene – can cause anxiety and stress • Gaba – also deals with anxiety Neurons – four components • Dendrites receive information (neurotransmitters) • The cell body acts on info • Axons • Terminal buttons send info (neurotransmitters) Then what happens? • Reuptake - Neurotransmitters can go back to the terminal button (synaptic vesicles), or • Reexcitation – neurotransmitter can be expelled from receptor and then return to excite another neuron, and • Dispersal – enzymes can break down the neurotransmitter and then what’s left can be swept away by the bodily fluids How do they cause problems? • Too much or to little? • Kinda, but it’s more complcated - enzymes • If not broken down, effects can be exaggerated • If not produced, minimized 4 1/17/2014 Receptor troubles • Too many – exaggerated effect – schiz & dopamine • To treat, use an antagonist to dampen activity • Over-used – receptor become desensitized • To treat, use an agonist to increase activity The Brain • Billions of tightly packed neurons • Composed of two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum • Four lobes within the cerebral cortex: 1) Frontal, 2) Temporal, 3) Occipital, and 4) Parietal The Limbic System • More subcortical structures • Important with respect to emotions and drives – hunger, thirst, sex, fight/flight • Key are the hippocampus (memory) and the amygdala (emotion, especially fear) and how they work together Don’t forget glial cells • Support, nourish, and control neurons • Improper functioning can play a role in dementia or schiz • New Subcortical structures • Beneath the cerebral cortex we find important Parts of the brain • Basal ganglia – parts of the brain which together both start and stop cognitive and motor activity • Thalamus – relay center for most of the senses • Brain stem – pons and medulla relay neural activity Brain development • Very complicated process • If things go wrong – problems result 5 1/17/2014 Once we find the reinforcer … • We stop providing the reinforcement • Or we administer punishment (time-out) to weaken the behavior • We reinforce desirable behaviors, by making reinforcement contingent upon them Systematic Desensitization • A way to conquer unreasonable fear or anxiety • Two elements: 1) deep muscle relaxation, and 2) gradual exposure • Can be either in vivo or imaginal • Important to fade reinforcement once desired behavior is performed consistently How about thinking and feeling? • Cognitive science adds treatment options • Takes into account that we actively filter our experiences based upon past info & experience • Schemas – mental structures for organizing information about the world New views on the Unconscious • Cognitive scientists study the Unconscious • But what was revealed points away from Freud’s view • Our brain does a lot that we aren’t aware of • We are influenced by, monitor, and remember, much that we do not consciously attend to • Implicit Memory – priming and the Cocktail Party Effect The importance of Attention • What, or how, we focus on in any situation is crucial • Anxious people focus on threatening events • Schizophrenics can’t even focus • The Stroop Task shows how attention can compromised, even by emotional bias’ Cognitive Behavior Therapy • Using cognitive insights to change behavior • Cognitive Restructuring – changing thought patterns • Altering thoughts can change feelings and behaviors • Starts with close monitoring of thoughts/moods • Some are so deep-rooted they are automatic 6 1/17/2014 Beck’s Cognitive Therapy • Underlying insight – we’re sad because of what we distort life experiences • Problems arise from: 1) What we attend to, 2) How we interpret it, and 3) What we remember. The importance of Emotions • The expression, experience, and physiology that guide how we react to our environment • Problems with emotion figure in most types of psychopathology Beck’s CBT II • Therapy focuses on persuading p’s to change their opinion of themselves and the way they interpret life events • Challenge negative thoughts and interpretations of life events • Beck’s CBT has been expanded in varying directions Emotional expression • Schizophrenics – not enough, if any • Panic attack- too much • Crucial whichever paradigm we use What emotion do want? • Ideal affect • • • • • In the West, we want happiness or excitement If we lack these, we feel bad Leads to abuse of cocaine or amphetimines In the East, calmness is referred In turn, heroin is often abused Sociocultural Influences • Factors like gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, race, and culture • These can trigger, accelerate, or maintain mds 7 1/17/2014 Gender –the psychological aspects of our sexuality • Some mds effect the sexes disproportionately, like depression, antisocial personality disorder, or alcoholism • What risk factors can we identify? Culture and Ethnicity • Some mds are found everywhere – schiz • Others are limited to a particular culture – eating disorders in the West, or hikikomori in Japan • Ethnicity also can be important • More schiz among African-Americans • Caucasians are more likely to abuse drugs • Further, culture may influence gene expression Poverty • Huge factor in mds • Related to: 1) antisocial personality disorder 2) depression 3) anxiety Interpersonal factors • The quality of our relationships is key • These include: 1) marriage 2) family 3) friends, and 4) casual acquaintances • Could be plus (intimacy) or minus (hostility) Family therapy Attachment Theory • Often crucial for many reasons • Parenting skills – conduct disorder • Communication, reducing criticism, education, developing skills to cope or cure – bipolar, schiz • Acknowledging the problem itself – substance abuse • How we were nurtured in our first year of life can have important ramifications • Treated with sensitivity – able to form trusting bonds as adults • Not so lucky – likely to experience psychological difficulties 8 1/17/2014 Diathesis-Stress: an integrative paradigm Diathesis-Stress II • Merges the other paradigms • Focuses on the interaction between a predisposition to disease – the diathesis - and environmental challenges – the stress • Diathesis’ can be genetic, delivery complications, poor nutrition, etc. • Anything that has a deleterious effect on the brain • From a psychological perspective, diathesis can be faulty schemas, excessive fears, insecure attachment, etc. • The stress element explains how the predisposition turns into a md • Consist of some adverse environmental event such as severe trauma, loss, or even day to day hassles • Big point – takes both to produce md 9