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11/24/10 CHAPTER 2:34 AM Page 110 Test Your Understanding Review 06 MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Which of these methods is best at measuring implicit attitudes? Summary HOW DO ATTITUDES DEVELOP? p. 96 • One way that attitudes can arise is due to conditioning—either classical or operant. Classical conditioning creates an association between two mutually occurring events, while operant conditioning increases or decreases the frequency of a behavior with reinforcements and punishments. • Attitudes can also arise due to observational learning, wherein we internalize the attitudes of others. In this way, attitudes can be passed on from one person to another. • Attitudes can be held explicitly (those that are consciously known) or implicitly (associations of which people may not be aware). The methods necessary to assess these different types of attitudes vary considerably. Explicit attitudes can be assessed with simple self-report measures, while implicit attitudes require a subtle method such as the IAT. Chapter 06 p. 104 • One way in which attitude change occurs is via cognitive dissonance. If people find that they are behaving in a way that is inconsistent with their attitudes, they will shift their attitudes to better match the behavior. This can be used to impact behavior as well, by making people aware that they are behaving inconsistently with a cared-about attitude. In addition, the tendency to be affected by cognitive dissonance is affected by culture. • Our attitudes can also shift based on observations of our own behavior, our motivation to appear a particular way to others, or by being more open to others’ opinions after affirming core parts of our identity. When we are secure in who we are, we feel freer to consider others’ ideas. unconditioned stimulus, comes to evoke the response associated with the unconditioned stimulus 98 explicit attitudes attitudes of which one is aware, and that one can control 96 Implicit Association Test (IAT) test that measures how easily we associate categories with positive or negative attitudes, including measures in categories ranging from racial and religious attitudes to attitudes about presidents. https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/ demo/ 101 implicit attitudes attitudes that are automatically formed and activated without our even being aware of it 96 impression management the process by which people either consciously or unconsciously attempt to monitor how they appear to others by regulating the information conveyed about themselves in a social interaction, and thus attitude change is more likely when counterattitudinal behavior occurs in public 108 mere exposure effect the phenomenon whereby objects become better-liked with exposure—we like things more with which we are familiar 98 a. b. c. d. the the the the A we got in social psychology F we got in social psychology sound of a clock ticking hue of the color magenta 3. You are afraid of thunder. I decide that every time there is a thunderstorm, I will make you hold a rabbit. Now you also fear rabbits. The rabbit is the: a. b. c. d. unconditioned stimulus unconditioned response conditioned stimulus conditioned response 4. You made me a delicious dinner. Since I want more dinners made for me, I bring you wine and smile a lot when you cook for me. What am I doing? a. b. c. d. positive reinforcement negative reinforcement positive punishment negative punishment 5. Cognitive dissonance causes people to strive to diminish which personality trait? a. b. c. d. Key Terms accessibility the degree to which a concept is active in our consciousness 104 ambivalence simultaneously experiencing strong contradictory emotions or motivations 96 attitudes having an evaluative component toward a stimulus that is made up of affective, behavioral, and cognitive information 96 classical conditioning a type of learning by which a neutral stimulus (UCS) gets paired with a stimulus that elicits a response (UCR). Through repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus (CS) by itself elicits the response (CR) of the second stimulus 98 chronic accessibility accessibility arising from frequent and recent exposure to a construct that has permanence—i.e., it is accessible all of the time 104 cognitive dissonance the anxiety that arises from acting in a way discordant with your attitudes. This anxiety is resolved by adjusting one’s attitudes to be in line with the behavior. 106 conditioned response (CR) a learned response to the conditioned stimulus that was previously a neutral stimulus 98 conditioned stimulus (CS) a stimulus that, only by repeated association with a particular 2. Which of these events are we most likely to remember? name-letter effect the tendency to show a preference for letters in our own name and prefer stimuli that contain those letters 98 observational learning acquiring an attitude or behavior due to the observation of others exhibiting that attitude or behavior 99 operant conditioning a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior is determined by reinforcement and punishment 99 post-decision dissonance cognitive dissonance that results from having to reject one appealing choice in favor of another 107 self-affirmation theory the theory that we are more open to attitudinal change when we have recently been given an opportunity to affirm our core values and identity 108 theory of planned behavior the theory that attitudes, social norms, and the perceived control of the individual lead to behavior 103 unconditioned response (UCR) a response that occurs automatically in reaction to some stimulus, without learning taking place 98 unconditioned stimulus (UCS) a stimulus that elicits a response automatically, without learning taking place 98 guilt hypocrisy fear prejudice 6. Why do implicit attitudes influence behavior? a. Because associations in memory are activated outside of a. b. c. d. strength of the attitude specificity of the attitude superordinance of the attitude accessibility of the attitude 9. When you act in a way that is different from how you believe you should, you: a. change your behavior b. change your attitude c. a or b, depending on whether or not the behavior can be changed and the strength of the attitude d. neither a nor b 10. What is the best way to get others to listen to your opinions, based on attitude research? a. b. c. d. talk louder allow them to do something affirming their own beliefs try to provide proof for your opinions show them that most people share your opinion ESSAY RESPONSE 1. If some attitudes are acquired through conditioning, consider how we might overcome or undo attitudes that have negative impacts on our lives, such as prejudice. 2. Discuss how observational learning can overcome phobias. 3. When might attitudes influence behavior versus not? 4. Think about how cognitive dissonance operates in the workplace. What from this chapter explains why paying employees more for better work is effective? How might employers increase workplace enjoyment, given that paying employees for work may reduce enjoyment of the tasks themselves? 5. Consider how impression management can impact your attitudes. What does it mean for the self and social relations to say that we change attitudes more when we behave counter-attitudinally in public? awareness b. Because we endorse implicit attitudes c. Because we mimic these attitudes in others d. Implicit attitudes do not influence behavior 7. Hotel owners did not keep the Chinese couple from staying at their hotels in the research by LaPiere (1934). Which is least likely to be the reason? a. b. c. d. The couple exhibited kindness The couple spoke proper English The generality of the stereotype versus the specificity of the couple The owners really didn’t mean it when they said they wouldn’t admit a Chinese couple APPLY IT! Think about your attitude toward school. Regardless of how positive or negative it is, what factors contributed to your acquisition of this attitude? Might conditioning or observational learning have played a role? Might cognitive dissonance be responsible for any decrements in your attitude toward school, perhaps after attending a few parties instead of studying? Or might impression management have kept any positive aspects of your attitude intact? Remember to check www.thinkspot.com for additional information, downloadable flashcards, and other helpful resources. ATTITUDES: MAKING EVALUATIONS ABOUT THE WORLD • Attitudes do not inherently imply behavior. Oftentimes people will believe in a cause or principle but not act on it when the opportunity arises. Many factors influence whether or not attitudes will come to impact behavior. The core factors are the strength of the attitude, the specificity of the attitude to the behavior in question, the accessibility of the attitude, and the result of rational decision-making. WHEN DOES BEHAVIOR INFLUENCE ATTITUDES? observation self-report introspection the IAT 8. Which influences the impact of attitudes on behavior the least? 111 110 DO ATTITUDES INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR? p. 101 • The stronger an attitude is, the more likely it is to translate into behavior. Likewise, the more specific the attitude is to the circumscribed behavior, the more it will be relevant for that behavior. The easier an attitude is to bring to mind, whether because of repeated exposure to it or recent exposure to it (both of which increase accessibility), the more it will influence behavior. Finally, if rational thought leads to the decision that a behavior should be done based upon a held attitude, and it is decided that the behavior can be done, it is more likely that the behavior will arise. a. b. c. d. ANSWERS: 1. d; 2. b; 3. c; 4. a; 5. b; 6. a; 7. d; 8. c; 9. c; 10. b 06_SP_CH06(094-111).qxp