Download AbPsych Chapter 2 Handouts

Slide 1
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Models of Abnormality
Chapter 2
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Fundamentals of Abnormal Psychology, 6e
Ronald Comer
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Slides & Handouts by Karen Clay Rhines, Ph.D.
Northampton Community College
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Slide 2
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Models of Abnormality

In science, the perspectives used to
explain events are known as models or
paradigms
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◦ Each spells out basic assumptions, gives order
to the field under study, and sets guidelines
for investigation
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◦ Models influence what investigators observe,
the questions they ask, the information they
seek, and how they interpret this information
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Slide 3
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Models of Abnormality

Until recently, clinical scientists of a given
place and time tended to agree on a
single model of abnormality – a model
greatly influenced by the beliefs of their
culture

Today, several models are used to explain
and treat abnormal functioning
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◦ Each model focuses mainly on one aspect of
human functioning and none can explain all
aspects of abnormality
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Slide 4
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The Biological Model

Adopts a medical perspective
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Main focus is that abnormal behavior is an
illness brought about by malfunctioning
parts of the organism
◦ Typically focused on the brain
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?

Brain anatomy
◦ The brain is composed of ~100 billion nerve
cells (called neurons) and thousands of billions
of support cells (called glia)
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◦ Within the brain, large groups of neurons
form distinct areas called brain regions
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?

Brain anatomy and abnormal behavior
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◦ Clinical researchers have discovered
connections between certain psychological
disorders and problems in specific brain areas
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 Example: Huntington’s disease and basal ganglia
(forebrain)
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?

Brain chemistry
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◦ Information is communicated throughout the
brain in the form of electrical impulses that
travel from one neuron to one or more
others
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◦ An impulse first is received at a neuron’s
dendrites, travels down the axon, and is
transmitted through the nerve ending to the
dendrites of other neurons
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Slide 9
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?

Brain chemistry
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◦ Neurons do not actually touch each other; they
are separated by a space (the synapse), across
which a message moves
◦ When an electrical impulse reaches a nerve
ending, the ending is stimulated to release a
chemical called a neurotransmitter (NT), that
travels across the synaptic space to receptors on
the dendrites of neighboring neurons
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 Some NTs tell receiving neurons to “fire;” other NTs
tell receiving neurons to stop firing
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?

Brain chemistry and abnormal behavior
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◦ Researchers have identified dozens of NTs
and have learned that each neuron uses only
certain kinds
 Examples: serotonin, dopamine, GABA
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◦ Studies indicate that abnormal activity by
certain NTs can lead to specific mental
disorders
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 Examples: depression (serotonin and
norepinephrine) and anxiety (GABA)
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Slide 11
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?

Brain chemistry and abnormal behavior
◦ Additionally, researchers have learned that mental
disorders are sometimes related to abnormal
chemical activity in the endocrine system
◦ Endocrine glands release hormones which propel
body organs into action
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 Abnormal secretions have been linked to psychological
disorders
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 Example: Cortisol release is related to anxiety and mood
disorders
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?

Sources of biological abnormalities –
genetics
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◦ Each cell in the human body has 23 pairs of
chromosomes, each with numerous genes that
control the characteristics and traits a person
inherits
◦ Studies suggest that inheritance plays a part in
mood disorders, schizophrenia, and other mental
disorders
◦ Researchers hope eventually to be able to
prevent or change genes that help cause medical
or psychological disorders
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?
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Sources of biological abnormalities – evolution
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◦ Genes that contribute to mental disorders typically are
viewed as unfortunate occurrences (e.g., mutations)
◦ Evolutionary theorists argue that they are, instead, the
result of normal evolutionary principles:
 Genes responsible for human reactions survived because they
helped individuals thrive and adapt (e.g., fear)
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 In modern times, however, the very genes that allowed for survival and
reproduction might now leave individuals particularly prone to fear
reactions, and anxiety and other disorders
◦ This perspective is controversial and has been rejected by
many theorists; it requires leaps of faith that many
scientists find unacceptable
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How Do Biological Theorists
Explain Abnormal Behavior?

Sources of biological abnormalities –
viral infections
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◦ Another possible source of abnormal brain
structure or biochemical dysfunction is viral
infection
 Example: schizophrenia and prenatal viral exposure
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◦ Interest in viral explanations of psychological
disorders has been growing in the past decade
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 Example: anxiety and mood disorders
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Biological Treatments

Biological practitioners attempt to
pinpoint the physical source of
dysfunction to determine the course of
treatment
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Three types of biological treatment:
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◦ Drug therapy
◦ Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
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◦ Psychosurgery
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Biological Treatments

Drug therapy:
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◦ 1950s = Discovery of psychotropic medications
 Greatly changed the outlook for a number of mental
disorders
◦ Four major drug groups:
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 Antianxiety drugs (anxiolytics; tranquilizers)
 Antidepressant drugs
 Antibipolar drugs (mood stabilizers)
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 Antipsychotic drugs
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Biological Treatments

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT):
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◦ This treatment is used on tens of thousands
of depressed persons annually
 Used primarily for depression when drugs and
other therapies have failed
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Biological Treatments

Psychosurgery (or neurosurgery):
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◦ Historical roots in trephination
◦ 1930s = first lobotomy
◦ Much more precise than in the past
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◦ Considered experimental and used only in
extreme cases
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Assessing the Biological Model

Strengths:
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◦ Enjoys considerable
respect in the field
◦ Constantly produces
valuable new
information
◦ Brings great relief
Weaknesses:
◦ Can limit, rather than
enhance, our
understanding
 Too simplistic
◦ Treatments produce
significant undesirable
(negative) effects
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The Psychodynamic Model

Oldest and most famous psychological model
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Based on belief that a person’s behavior (whether
normal or abnormal) is determined largely by
underlying dynamic psychological forces of which
she or he is not consciously aware
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Father of psychodynamic theory and
psychoanalytic therapy:
◦ Abnormal symptoms are the result of conflict among
these forces
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◦ Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
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How Did Freud Explain
Normal and Abnormal Functioning?

Shaped by three UNCONSCIOUS forces:
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1. Id – guided by the Pleasure Principle
 Instinctual needs, drives, and impulses
 Sexual; fueled by libido (sexual energy)
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2. Ego – guided by the Reality Principle
 Seeks gratification, but guides us to know when we can
and cannot express our wishes
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 Ego defense mechanisms protect us from anxiety
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How Did Freud Explain
Normal and Abnormal Functioning?
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Caused by three UNCONSCIOUS forces:
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3. Superego – guided by the Morality Principle
 Conscience; unconsciously adopted from our parents
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These three parts of the personality are
often in some degree of conflict
◦ A healthy personality is one in which compromise
exists among the three forces
◦ If the id, ego, and superego are in excessive
conflict, the person’s behavior may show signs of
dysfunction
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How Did Freud Explain
Normal and Abnormal Functioning?
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Developmental stages
◦ Freud proposed that at each stage of
development, new events require adjustment of
the id, ego, and superego
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 If successful → personal growth
 If unsuccessful → fixation at an early developmental
stage, leading to psychological abnormality
 Because parents are the key figures in early life, they are often
seen as the cause of improper development
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How Did Freud Explain
Normal and Abnormal Functioning?
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Developmental stages
◦ Oral (0 to 18 months of age)
◦ Anal (18 months to 3 years of age)
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◦ Phallic (3 to 5 years of age)
◦ Latency (5 to 12 years of age)
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◦ Genital (12 years of age to adulthood)
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How Do Other Psychodynamic
Explanations Differ from Freud’s?

Although new theories depart from Freud’s ideas in
important ways, each holds on to the belief that
human functioning is shaped by dynamic (interacting)
psychological forces:
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◦ Ego theorists
 Emphasize the role of the ego; consider it independent
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◦ Self theorists
 Emphasize the unified personality
◦ Object-relations theorists
 Emphasize the human need for relationships with others;
importance of the relationship between children and their
caregivers
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Psychodynamic Therapies

Range from Freudian psychoanalysis to
modern therapies
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All seek to uncover past trauma and inner
conflicts
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Therapist acts as a “subtle guide”
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Psychodynamic Therapies

Utilize various techniques:
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◦ Free association
◦ Therapist interpretation
 Resistance
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 Transference
 Dream interpretation
◦ Catharsis
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◦ Working through
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Psychodynamic Therapies

Contemporary trends:
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◦ Short-term psychodynamic therapies
◦ Relational psychoanalytic therapy
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Assessing the Psychodynamic Model

Strengths:
◦ First to recognize
importance of
psychological theories
and treatment
◦ Saw psychological
conflict as important
source of psychological
health and abnormality
◦ First to demonstrate the
potential of
psychological treatment
- monumental impact on
the field
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Weaknesses:
◦ Unsupported ideas;
difficult to research
 Non-observable
 Inaccessible to human
subject (unconscious)
◦ Rely on case studies
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The Behavioral Model

Like psychodynamic theorists, behavioral
theorists believe that our actions are
determined largely by our experiences in
life
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Concentrates wholly on behaviors and
environmental factors
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Bases explanations and treatments on
principles of learning
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The Behavioral Model

The model began in laboratories where
conditioning studies were conducted
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◦ Several forms of conditioning:
 Operant conditioning
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 Modeling
 Classical conditioning
◦ Each may produce normal or abnormal
behavior
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How Do Behaviorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
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Operant conditioning
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◦ Humans and animals learn to behave in
certain ways as a result of receiving rewards
whenever they do so
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How Do Behaviorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?
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Modeling
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◦ Individuals learn responses by observing and
repeating behavior
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Slide 35
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How Do Behaviorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?

Classical conditioning
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◦ Learning by temporal association
 When two events repeatedly occur close together in
time, they become fused in a person’s mind; before long,
the person responds in the same way to both events
◦ Father of classical conditioning: Ivan Pavlov (1849
– 1936)
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 Classic study using dogs and meat powder
◦ Explains many familiar behaviors (both normal
and abnormal)
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Slide 36
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Classical Conditioning
US
UR
Meat
Salivate
US
Meat
+
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UR
Tone
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Salivate
CS
CR
Tone
Salivate
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Behavioral Therapies
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Aim to identify the behaviors that are
causing problems and replace them with
more appropriate ones
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◦ May use classical conditioning, operant
conditioning, or modeling
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Therapist is “teacher” rather than healer
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Behavioral Therapies

Classical conditioning treatments may be
used to change abnormal reactions to
particular stimuli
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◦ Example: systematic desensitization for phobia
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 Step-by-step procedure
 Learn relaxation skills
 Construct a fear hierarchy
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 Confront feared situations
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Assessing the Behavioral Model

Strengths:
◦ Powerful force in the
field
◦ Can be tested in the
laboratory
◦ Significant research
support for behavioral
therapies
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Weaknesses:
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◦ Too simplistic
◦ Behavior therapy is
limited
◦ Downplays role of
cognition
 New focus on
self-efficacy, social
cognition, and cognitivebehavioral theories
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Slide 40
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Slide 41
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The Cognitive Model
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Seeks to understand human thought in
order to understand human behavior
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Argues that clinicians must ask questions
about assumptions, attitudes, and thoughts
of a client
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Slide 42
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How Do Cognitive Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?

Cognitive problems are the cause of
abnormal behavior
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◦ Several kinds of faulty thinking:
 Faulty assumptions and attitudes
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 Illogical thinking processes
 Example: overgeneralization
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Slide 43
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Cognitive Therapies

People can develop a new way of thinking to
overcome their problems

Main model: Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
◦ The goal of therapy is to help clients recognize
and restructure their thinking
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 Therapists also guide clients to challenge their
dysfunctional thoughts, try out new interpretations,
and apply new ways of thinking in their daily lives
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 Widely used in treating depression
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Slide 44
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Assessing the Cognitive Model

Strengths:
◦ Very broad appeal
◦ Clinically useful and
effective
◦ Focuses on a uniquely
human process
◦ Theories lend
themselves to
research
◦ Therapies effective in
treating several
disorders

Weaknesses:
◦ Precise role of
cognition in
abnormality has yet to
be determined
◦ Limited effectiveness
◦ Singular, narrow focus
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Slide 45
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The Humanistic-Existential Model

Combination model
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◦ The humanist view
 Emphasis on people as friendly, cooperative, and
constructive; focus on drive to
self-actualization
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◦ The existentialist view
 Emphasis on self-determination, choice, and
individual responsibility; focus on authenticity
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Slide 46
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Rogers’s Humanistic Theory and
Therapy

Believes in the basic human need for
unconditional positive regard
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◦ If received, leads to unconditional self-regard
◦ If not, leads to “conditions of worth”
 Incapable of self-actualization because of distortion
– do not know what they really need, etc.
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Slide 47
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Rogers’s Humanistic Theory and
Therapy

Rogers’s “client-centered” therapy
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◦ Therapist creates a supportive climate
 Unconditional positive regard
 Accurate empathy
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 Genuineness
◦ Little research support
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Slide 48
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Gestalt Theory and Therapy

Humanistic approach
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◦ Developed by Fritz Perls
◦ Goal is to guide clients toward self-recognition
through challenge and frustration
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◦ Techniques:
 Skillful frustration
 Role playing
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 Rules, including “Here and Now” and “I” language
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Slide 49
Spiritual Views and Interventions
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
The historical alienation between the
clinical field and religion seems to be
ending
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
Researchers have learned that spirituality
can, in fact, be of psychological benefit to
people
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◦ Many therapists now make a point of
including spiritual issues when they treat
religious clients
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Slide 50
Existential Theories and Therapy

Believe that psychological dysfunction is
caused by self-deception; people hide from
life’s responsibilities and fail to recognize that
it is up to them to give meaning to their lives

In therapy, people are encouraged to accept
personal responsibility for their problems
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◦ Goals more important than technique
◦ Great emphasis placed on client-therapist
relationship
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Slide 51
Assessing the Humanistic-Existential
Model

Strengths:
◦ Taps into domains
missing from other
theories
◦ Emphasizes the
individual
◦ Optimistic
◦ Emphasizes health

Weaknesses:
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◦ Focuses on abstract
issues
 Difficult to research
◦ Not much influence
◦ Weakened by
disapproval of
scientific approach
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 Changing somewhat
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Slide 52
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The Sociocultural Models

Argue that abnormal behavior is best
understood in light of the social and cultural
forces that influence an individual
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◦ Address norms and roles in society

Argue that we must examine a person’s
social surroundings to understand his or her
(abnormal) behavior
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
Include two major perspectives…
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Slide 53
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How Do Family-Social Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?

Focus on:
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◦ Social labels and roles
 Diagnostic labels (example: Rosenhan study)
◦ Social networks and supports
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Slide 54
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How Do Family-Social Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?

Focus on:
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◦ Family structure and communication
 Family systems theory argues that abnormal
functioning (especially in structure and
communication) within a family leads to abnormal
behavior (insane behavior becomes sane in an
insane environment)
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 Examples: enmeshed, disengaged structures
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Slide 55
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Family-Social Treatments

This perspective has helped spur the
growth of several treatment approaches,
including:
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◦ Group therapy
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◦ Family therapy
◦ Couple therapy
◦ Community treatment
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 Includes prevention work
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Slide 56
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How Do Multicultural Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?

Culture refers to the set of values, attitudes,
beliefs, history, and behaviors shared by a group of
people and communicated from one generation
to the next

The multicultural perspective has emerged as a
growing field of study

Multicultural psychologists seek to understand
how culture, race, ethnicity, gender, and similar
factors affect behavior and thought, as well as
how people of different cultures, races, and
genders differ psychologically
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Slide 57
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How Do Multicultural Theorists
Explain Abnormal Functioning?

Researchers have learned that psychological
abnormality is more common among poorer
people than among wealthier people

They also have noticed that the prejudice
and discrimination faced by many minority
groups may contribute to certain forms of
abnormal functioning

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Multicultural researchers also study
differences that occur across countries as
well as within countries
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Slide 58
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Multicultural Treatments

Studies have found that members of
ethnic and racial minority groups tend to
show less improvement in clinical
treatment than members of majority
groups
◦ Two features of treatment can increase a
therapist’s effectiveness with minority clients:
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 Greater sensitivity to cultural issues
 Inclusion of cultural models in treatment, especially
in therapies for children and adolescents
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Slide 59
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Multicultural Treatments

Given such findings, some clinicians have
developed culture-sensitive and gendersensitive therapies
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Slide 60
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Assessing the
Sociocultural Models

Strengths:
◦ Added greatly to the
clinical understanding
and treatment of
abnormality
 Increased awareness of
labeling and social roles
◦ Clinically successful
when other
treatments have failed

Weaknesses:
◦ Research is difficult to
interpret
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 Correlation  causation
◦ Model unable to
predict abnormality in
specific individuals
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Slide 61
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Slide 62
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Integration of the Models

Each perspective is valuable to
understanding abnormal behavior

Different perspectives are more appropriate
under differing conditions

An integrative approach provides a general
framework for thinking about abnormal
behavior, and also allows for specification of
the factors that are especially pertinent to
particular disorders
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Slide 63
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Integration of the Models

Many theorists, clinicians, and practitioners
adhere to a biopsychosocial model:
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◦ Abnormality results from the interaction of
genetic, biological, developmental, emotional,
behavioral, cognitive, social, and societal influences

Also popular:
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◦ Diathesis-stress approach
 Diathesis = predisposition (bio, psycho, or social)
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Slide 64
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Integration of the Models

Integrative therapists are often called
“eclectic” – taking the strengths from
each model and using them in
combination
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