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Eastern and Central Africa Programme for Agricultural Policy Analysis ************************************************************************************************************ A Programme of the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa ********************************************** Electronic Newsletter 17 November 2006--Volume 9 Number 22 NEWS 28th November – 1st December: ASARECA-ECAPAPA/ East Africa Seed Committee (EASCOM) Annual General Meeting, Entebbe, Uganda. 30th November – 4th December: ASARECA-ECAPAPA/CIAT-PRGA Leadership Training Workshop on capacity building in participatory research and gender analysis in the NARS of ASARECA, Entebbe, Uganda. Directory update: We are in the process of updating and printing this year’s Stakeholders’ Directory. Please let us know before 30 November if there are any changes on your contact details. Of interest is your station of work, e-mail, phone and fax contact. Professor Gabriel Kiwuwa has been appointed Prof. Emeritus of Makerere University, one of the pioneer universities in agricultural research in the region. Prof. Kiwuwa is one of the first four academics to get this title in the history of Makerere University. It is in recognition of his continued involvement in teaching, attracting research funding and producing publications after his official retirement. ASARECA/ECAPAPA congratulates Prof. Kiwuwa upon this achievement. CLIMATE CHANGE: SUSTAINING NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL POLICY RESPONSE In July 2005, Britain commissioned a climate change review to understand more comprehensively the nature of the economic challenges and how they can be met, in the U K and globally. The review which was released in October this year reveals overwhelming scientific evidence indicating that climate change is a serious global threat. The release of the report coincided with the 12 th UN Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Climate Change held in Nairobi, Kenya from November 6 – 17, 2006. This convention brought together over 6,000 delegates from across the globe. Although this report was not specifically a subject of discussion at the Nairobi convention, the issues raised bear a lot of similarities with the findings of the review. In this issue of the newsletter, ECAPAPA would like to share with our stakeholders some of the concerns and policy recommendations raised by the review. 1 Climate change will affect the basic elements of life for people around the world–access to water, food production, health, and the environment. Hundreds of millions of people could suffer hunger, water shortages and coastal flooding as the world warms. Using the results from formal economic models, the review estimates that if no action is taken now, the overall costs and risks of climate change will be equivalent to losing at least 5 percent of global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) consistently each year. If a wider range of risks and impacts is taken into account, the estimates of damage could rise to 20 percent of GDP or more. In contrast, the costs of action–reducing greenhouse gas emissions to avoid the worst impacts of climate change– can be limited to around 1 percent of global GDP each year. The investments in the next 10-20 years would have a profound effect on the climate in the second half of this century and in the next. Actions now and over the coming decades could create risks of major disruption to economic and social activity, on a scale similar to those associated with the great wars and the economic depression of the first half of the 20th century. And it would be difficult or impossible to reverse these changes. Because climate change is a global problem, the response to it must be international. It must be based on a shared vision of long-term goals and agreement on frameworks that will accelerate action over the next decade, and must build on mutually reinforcing approaches at national, regional and international level. Impact on growth and development If no action is taken to reduce emissions, the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere could double its pre-industrial level as early as 2035, virtually committing people to a global average temperature rise of over 2°C. In the longer term, there would be more than a 50 percent chance that the temperature rise would exceed 5°C. This rise would be very dangerous indeed; it is equivalent to the change in average temperatures from the last ice age to today. Such a radical change in the physical geography of the world must lead to major changes in the human geography – where people live and how they live their lives. Even at more moderate levels of warming, all the evidence – from detailed studies of regional and sectoral impacts of changing weather patterns, through to economic models of the global effects–shows that climate change will have serious impacts on world output, on human life and on the environment and all countries will be affected. Climate change is a grave threat to the developing world and a major obstacle to continued poverty reduction across its many dimensions. First, developing regions are at a geographic disadvantage: they are already warmer, on average, than developed regions, and they also suffer from high rainfall variability. As a result, further warming will bring countries in the developing region high costs and few benefits. Second, developing countries - in particular the poorest - are heavily dependent on agriculture, the most climate-sensitive of all economic sectors, and suffer from inadequate health provision and low-quality public services. Third, their low incomes and vulnerabilities make adaptation to climate change particularly difficult. Because of these vulnerabilities, climate change is likely to reduce further already low incomes and increase illness and death rates. Falling farm incomes will increase poverty and reduce the ability of households to invest in a better future, forcing them to use up meager savings just to survive. At a national level, climate change will cut revenues and raise spending needs, worsening public finances. Many developing countries are already struggling to 2 cope with their current climate. Climatic shocks cause setbacks to economic and social development in developing countries today even with temperature increases of less than 1°C. The impacts of unabated climate change, - that is, increases of 3 or 4°C and upwards - will be to increase the risks and costs of these events very highly. Adaptation to climate change – that is, taking steps to build resilience and minimize costs– is essential. It is no longer possible to prevent the climate change that will take place over the next two to three decades, but it is still possible to protect our societies and economies from its impacts to some extent–for example, by providing better information, improved planning and more climate-resilient crops and infrastructure. Adaptation will cost tens of billions of dollars a year in developing countries alone, and will put still further pressure on already scarce resources. Adaptation efforts, particularly in developing countries, should be accelerated. Stabilization: At what cost? Emissions have been, and continue to be, driven by economic growth; yet stabilization of greenhouse-gas concentrations in the atmosphere is feasible and consistent with continued growth. The costs of stabilizing the climate are significant but manageable; delay would be dangerous and much more costly. The risks of the worst impacts of climate change can be substantially reduced if greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere can be stabilized between 450 and 550 parts per million (ppm) carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e). The current level is 430ppm CO2e today, and it is rising at more than 2ppm each year. Stabilization in this range would require emissions to be at least 25 percent below current levels by 2050, and perhaps much more. Ultimately, stabilization–at whatever level–requires that annual emissions be brought down to more than 80 percent below current levels. This is a major challenge, but sustained long-term action can achieve it at costs that are low in comparison to the risks of inaction. Central estimates of the annual costs of achieving stabilization between 500 and 550 ppm CO2e are around one percent of global GDP, if strong action is taken now. Costs could be even lower than that if there are major gains in efficiency, or if the strong co-benefits, for example from reduced air pollution, are measured. Costs will be higher if innovation in low-carbon technologies is slower than expected, or if policy-makers fail to make the most of economic instruments that allow emissions to be reduced whenever, wherever and however it is cheapest to do so. It would already be very difficult and costly to aim to stabilize at 450ppm CO2e. If action is delayed, the opportunity to stabilize at 500-550ppm CO2e may slip away. Action on climate change is required across all countries, and it need not cap the aspirations for growth of rich or poor countries. The costs of taking action are not evenly distributed across sectors or around the world. Even if the rich world takes on responsibility for absolute cuts in emissions of 60-80 percent by 2050, developing countries must take significant action too. But developing countries should not be required to bear the full costs of this action alone, and they will not have to. Carbon markets in rich countries are already beginning to deliver flows of finance to support low-carbon development, including through the Clean Development Mechanism. A transformation of these flows is now required to support action on the scale required. Action on climate change will also create significant business opportunities, as new markets are created in low-carbon energy technologies and other low-carbon goods and services. These markets could grow to be worth hundreds of billions of dollars each year, and employment in these sectors will expand accordingly. The world does not need to choose between averting climate change and promoting growth and 3 development. Changes in energy technologies and in the structure of economies have created opportunities to decouple growth from greenhouse gas emissions. Indeed, ignoring climate change will eventually damage economic growth. Tackling climate change is the pro-growth strategy for the longer term, and it can be done in a way that does not cap the aspirations for growth of rich or poor countries. A range of options exists to cut emissions; strong, deliberate policy action is required to motivate their take-up. Emissions can be cut through increased energy efficiency, changes in demand, and through adoption of clean power, heat and transport technologies. The power sector around the world would need to be at least 60 percent de-carbonized by 2050 for atmospheric concentrations to stabilize at or below 550ppm CO2e, and deep emissions cuts will also be required in the transport sector. Even with very strong expansion of the use of renewable energy and other low-carbon energy sources, fossil fuels could still make up over half of global energy supply in 2050. Coal will continue to be important in the energy mix around the world, including in fast-growing economies. Extensive carbon capture and storage will be necessary to allow the continued use of fossil fuels without damage to the atmosphere. Cuts in non-energy emissions, such as those resulting from deforestation and from agricultural and industrial processes, are also essential. With strong, deliberate policy choices, it is possible to reduce emissions in both developed and developing economies on the scale necessary for stabilization in the required range while continuing to grow. Climate change is the greatest market failure the world has ever seen, and it interacts with other market imperfections. Three elements of policy are required for an effective global response. The first is the pricing of carbon, implemented through tax, trading or regulation. The second is policy to support innovation and the deployment of low-carbon technologies. And the third is action to remove barriers to energy efficiency, and to inform, educate and persuade individuals about what they can do to respond to climate change. Climate change demands an international response, based on a shared understanding of long-term goals and agreement on frameworks for action. Many countries and regions are taking action already: the European Union (EU), California and China for example are among those with the most ambitious policies that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol provide a basis for international co-operation, along with a range of partnerships and other approaches. But more ambitious action is now required around the world. Countries facing diverse circumstances will use different approaches to make their contribution to tackling climate change. But action by individual countries is not enough. Each country, however large, is just a part of the problem. It is essential to create a shared international vision of long-term goals, and to build the international frameworks that will help each country to play its part in meeting these common goals. Key elements of future international frameworks should include: Emissions trading: The first element of policy is carbon pricing. Greenhouse gases are, in economic terms, an externality: those who produce greenhouse-gas emissions are bringing about climate change, thereby imposing costs on the world and on future generations, but they do not face the full consequences of their actions themselves. Putting an appropriate price on carbon–explicitly through tax or trading, or implicitly through regulation, means that people are faced with the full social cost of their actions. This will lead individuals and businesses to switch away from high-carbon goods and services, and to invest in low-carbon 4 alternatives. Economic efficiency points to the advantages of a common global carbon price: emissions reductions will then take place wherever they are cheapest. Expanding and linking the growing number of emissions trading schemes around the world is a powerful way to promote cost-effective reductions in emissions and to bring forward action in developing countries: strong targets in rich countries could drive flows amounting to tens of billions of dollars each year to support the transition to low-carbon development paths. Technology cooperation: The second element of climate-change policy is technology policy, covering the full spectrum from research and development, to demonstration and early stage deployment. The development and deployment of a wide range of low-carbon technologies is essential in achieving the deep cuts in emissions that are needed. The private sector plays the major role in research and development (R&D) and technology diffusion, but closer collaboration between government and industry will further stimulate the development of a broad portfolio of low carbon technologies and reduce costs. Many low-carbon technologies are currently more expensive than the fossil-fuel alternatives. Informal co-ordination as well as formal agreements can boost the effectiveness of investments in innovation around the world. Globally, support for energy R&D should at least double, and support for the deployment of new low-carbon technologies should increase up to five-fold. International co-operation on product standards is a powerful way to boost energy efficiency. Action to reduce deforestation: Emissions from deforestation are very significant – they are estimated to represent more than 18 percent of global emissions, a share greater than is produced by the global transport sector. Action to preserve the remaining areas of natural forest is needed urgently. Large-scale pilot schemes are required to explore effective approaches to combining national action and international support. Policies on deforestation should be shaped and led by the nation where the particular forest stands. But those countries should receive strong help from the international community, which benefits from their actions to reduce deforestation. At a national level, defining property rights to forest land, and determining the rights and responsibilities of landowners, communities and loggers, is key to effective forest management. This should involve local communities, respect informal rights and social structures, work with development goals and reinforce the process of protecting the forests. Research carried out for this report indicates that the opportunity cost of forest protection in 8 countries responsible for 70 per cent of emissions from land use could be around US $ 5 billion per annum initially, although over time marginal costs would rise. Compensation from the international community should take account of the opportunity costs of alternative uses of the land, the costs of administering and enforcing protection, and the challenges of managing the political transition as established interests are displaced. Carbon markets could play an important role in providing such incentives in the longer term. But there are short-term risks of destabilizing the crucial process of strengthening existing strong carbon markets if deforestation is integrated without agreements that strongly increase demand for emissions reductions. These agreements must be based on an understanding of the scale of transfers likely to be involved. The loss of natural forests around the world contributes more to global emissions each year than the transport sector. Curbing deforestation is a highly cost-effective way to reduce emissions; large-scale international pilot programmes to explore the best ways to do this could get underway very quickly. Adaptation: Adaptation is the only response available for the impacts that will occur over the next several decades before mitigation measures can have an effect. Unlike mitigation, adaptation will in most cases provide local benefits, realized without long lead times. Therefore some adaptation will occur autonomously, as individuals respond to market or environmental changes. Some aspects of adaptation, such as major infrastructure decisions, will require greater foresight and planning. There are also some aspects of 5 adaptation that require public goods delivering global benefits, including improved information about the climate system and more climate-resilient crops and technologies. Quantitative information on the costs and benefits of economy-wide adaptation is currently limited. Studies in climate-sensitive sectors point to many adaptation options that will provide benefits in excess of cost. But at higher temperatures, the costs of adaptation will rise sharply and the residual damages remain large. The poorest countries are most vulnerable to climate change. It is essential that climate change be fully integrated into development policy, and that rich countries honour their pledges to increase support through overseas development assistance. International funding should also support improved regional information on climate change impacts, and research into new crop varieties that will be more resilient to drought and flood. The long version of this review is available at: http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/sternreview_index.cfm This newsletter is an attempt to use e-communications to provide to a broad audience within and outside Eastern and Central Africa a mechanism for distribution and exchange of information relevant to agricultural policy issues. This newsletter is being sent to identified stakeholders of ECAPAPA. We want to respect your privacy and desire not to have your e-mail inbox filled with unwanted correspondence. If you do not want to receive this newsletter please send us a note at <[email protected] >, and we will remove your name from the distribution list. For back issues of this newsletter, go to ‘View Archive’ at www.asareca.org/ecapapa ECAPAPA is a regional programme of the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA). ECAPAPA receives support from a number of organizations including, BMZ/GTZ, EU, IDRC, SDC, and USAID. This newsletter is supported by a grant from the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). The editorial content of the newsletter is solely the responsibility of the Co-ordinating Unit of ECAPAPA. 6