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The protoplasmic a regarded as Membrane Complex System by H.L. Booij (Leyden). CONTENTS Page Chapter I. Introductory § i. Colloid systems § 2. The 2 of the structure § 3. Antagonism of the ions § 4. The action of § 5. Permeability § Can 6. the complex § 7. § § 1. 2. II. ... coacervates on . . be regarded as a 20 the to experimental part of this research. with Experiments Lathyrus 23 pollen Introductory 26 the germination § 3. The influence § 4. The influence of § 5. Stability of of the 27 salts germination.... 29 organic substances upon germination 33 some on grains 37 § 6. Respiration Chapter III. The 42 influence bakers’ § § 1. 2. of rate of influence of salts § 4. The influence of § 5. The volume of yeast cells § Respiration Chapter IV. § 1. 2. § 3. on fermentation The § compounds 43 the § 3. 6. various yeast Introductory Measuring organic compounds in 57 salt solutions .... of yeast 57 59 the experiments be from can The protoplasmic membrane protoplasmic membrane Summary 55 General conclusion Selecting Literature 44 fermentation on of the membrane The 13 16 membrane system? Measuring 5 10 organic substances protoplasmic Introduction Chapter membrane protoplasmic which the structure derived of 60 Lathyrus of bakers’ pollen. yeast . ... 63 66 71 75 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. § Colloid 1. ample systems. fact The very of modern the for justification those only medium of which is their electric sol will sol, now we sooner now of time, In the a what have the sol shall find the of work similar stability, particle diffuse note: and b. a water-shell is con- often oppositely secreted. u, 12, are the into as The high, relative proof of the existence same are not direction. hydrophobe sols; visible we to 13). If mixes one liquid layer, factors two shall then electrolytes hydrophile sols, very rich which under Dehydrating ultramicroscope. two on vicinity causing the presence greater sensitiveness a directed the immediate under the charged, There the ionized and other are particle. accepted in viscosity, (to, the second factor as that the micelles points visibility such a water from it, thus around hydrophile convert well-defined be factor. lower at a of greater in away Also, the fact low relative are act given lapse vital a higher, and the univalent dipoles surface, influence is than further Coacervates which may can a the at The hydration. ultramicroscope, media act be charge, hydrophile sols possess of these sols hydration. the to electrolytes a the highest concentration. In the case of positive valency rule will be found for the anions. This of to such at called groups. a minute, stability is due concentrations of various negative sols the trivalent cations polar viscosity biological of water Their valency of the ions of the micelle of in suspensions completely precipitated in definite parts of the a the importance, later. or Besides the electric of From is which disperse distinguish five forms of these can are centration, the bivalent cations sols, potentialities, biology. of are particles (to —too //). ascertain to we case cations to of colloids system charge; they repel each other and, consequently, required are a not precipitate. Neutral salts will decrease the charge; the having turned into a suspension of uncharged particles, will precipitate If We sols Hydrophobe electrically charged a affords systems water. being review of the (43): systems Sols. a. closer colloid-chemistry standpoint, watery protoplasm a play a in colloids, prominent 3 part in these systems, caused to viz. by hydration. ). When the 1 X C the electric be looked upon will the as I + i h = d x this formula In h) its i 2 D) of sols, that of of the sum dielectric complex felt (21). is its at of will contain the smallest be present For charged. in quantity of the excess, form positive again can be the anion, at; a 3 —1 great a ions > following 2 —1 > influence Those, possessing possessing Thus, we we a two 1 —1 low than makes itself the numbers of coacervate uncharged. Should then the negative coacervate component is the upon the cations of should like to distinguish complex as coacervate for anions a high valency work in a valency. If to phenomena; 20). make the can well drop negative component, excess as droplets. large we represent of the cation and a valency a lower salt by b) that of parallel rules of valency will be arrived and 1) In other colloid systems Generally, mixture a form many smaller one —b, a) being the valency the This water. point the itself from droplets with the concentration than ions of symbol viscosity this the seen to frees 27). Both for cations rule will be found; liquid a much lower surrounding medium (disintegration 21, as droplets in the electric field will Under the influence of neutral salts, disappear (19, The constant. of and interval positive electrode. On the side of the negative component coacervate present in the the be secreted when excess, when coacervate electrode, the larger drops the find the to and be water in particles, particularly in the domain At equal. example, be attracted toward the Here, of the the medium, we are minimum of the components be present will one of of the “bound” maximum are ' I00) ( Hence It is that this coacervation Coacervation n / oppositely charged, is are positive and negative charges one Co (h, + h2) constant rest viscosities. partial the to = supported by the fact that the viscosity hydrophile the X Cl d or layer together with the is due in i h2 between the particles in a given coacervate particles, having lost part of their water-shell, conception refer to equilibrium, Formally, this repulsion may d) the interval between the particles. coacervate repulsion, units. two D the in equal the repulsion e) represents the charge hydration, is coacervate particles. of sum Cl D the should like we c attraction tendencies of the hydration both factors Jointly, complex relations as the electric attraction and 1 —3 > charge 1 —2 of > 1 —1. complex Salts also have coacervate drops. high valency, will diminish chiefly the we may come across these complex relations. designate these systems coacervates, as complex systems. complex films, complex gels, etc. 4 negative charge, and therefore, they will render the drops positive. On the other find the continuous i replace may high — 2 > with anions i of the one — > i i —2 complex is phenomenon of high valency Tri-complex i > —3. coacervates also are colloid amphoteric Of the examples, known anion ion, the known densed system gether, ion of an autocomplex-coacerIt (29). crystal which the micelles can or be can a particular the film group, biology. For different ion. liquid, a con- aggregated to- in definite pattern. a bi-refringence of the system. membrane is or which will reasons, as condensed system, a aggregated in are often be ascertained from the this as crystalloid a colloid a fairly closely defined molecules or coacervate are three upon depend, namely: day, the cation is regarding that is anion. — crystalloid ion a with micelles colloid a By cation — this to up being either Colloid crystals. In by components called components that the establishment of these systems This we (12). vation c) are drops negative. Here, rule: valency > i — which valency, salts action that makes the an following 3 We neutral hand, distinguished by be important to considered later, it is probable that the protoplasmic membrane is partly formed of lipoids (lecithin and the like). In the that of oleate- and electric attraction forces that the which and tendency Our which “dehydration”, alcohols, and London-Van of cholesterin is the like, der Waals which by electrolytes regarded factors: lipophile as a be shown molecules It is the (14, non-electrolytes affecting by interpreted force. attraction, Waals der presumption line themselves up, Thus, action upon monomolecular lecithin determines transition the electric oleic as obvious acid, an filling, as it is the to higher of the increase that it permeability, (65). This the amount water, were, of a the pores 15). The influence exerted by on a complex one or more hydration system of the three and can be influencing the attraction of the groups. d) Flocks. ter, and to as besides of “sensitizers”. means lecithin film; the cholesterin molecules between the lecithin tend the the addition of cholesterin likewise may is well as powers the London-Van chains be stimulated cholesterin has a “dehydrating” layers; the surface decreases on complexes, other starting-point fatty acid hydrophobe can of lecithin hydration, i.e. play (14). into come case stearate-coacervates, These are condensed systems of an amorphous characthough it is possible that they consist of very fine colloid crystals. 5 If add we sensitizer a to an flocks oleate-coacervate, As the concentration of the sensitizer increases, non-refringing from the (85). stage in order Besides The form to the as a whether the of phenomena The in of structure The existence to the are going in the on be or in a liquid state. The explained from the action complex relations. membrane. membrane around the proto- permeability, the cell’s is no longer a point deny the existence of this separate protoplasm itself. by the experiments to colloido-chemical In this of Bigwood theory they who (3), are that proved of the gelatine gel for Ca- and Cl-ions depends charge of the gel. It is noteworthy that this permeability follows the Donnan rule. membrane be cannot Other authors grounds of are both Finally, of from the accepting the existence of mation of This a the surface. a it is Like point the hairs to The The Brownian of the concentrate may even Most layer is convincing furnished differ well-known some on surface. the surfaces, the lead rest to of the the forwith experiments forming uninjured cell, parts of the protoplasm of When the proto- and the refraction in the surface from those in the inner proof of the existence of by the properties the on in the direction of a membrane are movement protoplasm contain to formed impermeable to dyes. plasm is “killed”, it gets rapidly stained. root on membrane inseparable differences with phenomenon membrane. Nageli a endowed with other tendency the membrane appear membrane is explaining surface solid Hydrocharis by Hydrocharis the lipoids have concentration controversies though a permeability. to existence of accept the protoplasm, protoplasm. relative these than the latter, because Proteins and A second fact is that the existence of this proved morphologically. experiments elements of truth. We on a to permeability upon the this be is important than more attributing the changes in permeability supported the is protoplasmic non-existence of or control solid to upon the of contention. Those authors who layer, a permeability will have organic substances plasm, said reactions rigid. grow complex gels membrane protoplasmic complex system of biocolloids, question whether it subsists 2. system will (22). of salts and § the colloid mesh-work, a question regarded change powerful bi-refringing complex flocks and complex colloid crystals, known are comparatively a This the increasing orientation of the molecules. proves Whenever the micelles of a sol are seen to adhere locally Gels. e) to be detected. can these flocks a Chambers and Reznikoff layer layer. protective (35, 36). surface 6 On Amoeba into introducing membrane touched with for cause KC1. or the On the other protoplasm hand, the toxic outside the cell than inside it, are more Amoeba and 2 CaCl 2 find the we reverse is distilled in placed Also, when the organism is placed in NaCl the water, KC1 or is establishment soon a solution of solutions. According these to function of the internal a surmise correct, we that great the are not or 2 protoplasm, CaCl2 , take place this re- dependent surrounding medium. surface to permeability. be phenomenon substances capillary-active essential part in it. There an the — a that assume playing be considered to membrane is safely can (especially lipoids) things quickly authors, of the membrane is very essential structure If the will MgCL re-establish itself, which does the collaboration between the latter and the The former itself. the membrane will on MgCl Hence, while NaCl and solidify. to MgCl 2 and CaCl2 . When wilfully injuring the membrane whilst re-establish in destroyed, when it is 2 solutions of NaCl KC1 they found the solution, completely glass needle. MgCl 2 and CaCl have no appreciable protoplasm becomes slightly more liquid on injecting a influence. The injections NaCl a The latter is soften. to slight permeability for are other and the water velocity of permeation of substances that dissolve in lipoids from which the From inferred. deduct that character of the hydrophobe this of the conception composition the of the membrane, protoplasm we again may greatly influences (69) that of the membrane. Here, it should be noted that Lepeschkin protoplasm sees the fact until the From injured as siderable that the a molecules makes hypothesis a the molecules of the by will burst if the volume be find a layers It goes lipoid molecules, must too by (42). tension is believed adsorbed on to low be caused the lipoid their having layer will possess The layer. get con- the (The acceptance a by follow that this the a briskly.) In this polar film of way the thickness of the may re- of rate of volume; the membrane of a groups directed high surface tension, value We in amongst the saying closely expansion expanded ward. A similar protoplasm not With the extension creep without model of the membrane which has of does point of conclude that thickness. dissolved hitherto the a possible the acceptance of another membrane surface extension, caused (40, 41) monomolecular film. of the membrane. establishment Davson multimolecular theory: the existence of of surface, membrane protoplasmic swelling of the cell has reached have must of the surface compound of proteins and lipoids. Danielli and bulk, membrane a — membrane may be not protoplasmic they few out- shown surface protein-like substance, picture a similar layer as 7 existing the internal on surface. Danielli the influence of Na and Ca salts and Davson put permeability, on of those of the Na and Ca salts that have anions phosphate group. or salts are able to As rule the Na salts a a the Ca salts will NaCl solution, Fig. ability than be not a membrane.' This Ca which are We, for do us, tioning of the cations of the first be to treats permeation 1. the 3. a as mem- perme- simple a at a are rate regarding borne out by interpretation of the func- all that and this is as Various quicker their views high valency, different permeability high valency. permeability on a forms dia-permeation, 2. vide certainly § 3.) physico-chemical angle. of permeation dis- are in-permeation and 3. we are ex- chiefly concerned latter The no 2. different groups homogeneous wall permeating of membranes substance the through does not let (Fig. 2). the solute pass, capillaries. homogeneous wall substance lets through the solute; there evidence There exists a of capillaries. heterogeneous dividual wall substance 4. of 1). Of these phenomena (Fig. distinguishes The is why the cell’s believe this show place we the dia-permeation. He 2. is (Incontestably, Fig. 1. carboxyl higher degree of a permeability from three place, by him: tinguished with not those cations that Manegold (73) In water. influence of NaCl and CaCl2 the facts. permeable. If soluble in water, permeate when the film contains true a while the Ca soluble, 1. low in the presence of cations substances, the containing down properties shall find Na within we brane. Now this Na membrane will show be the insoluble. The other way round, the Na salts will be perme- water, whilst protoplasm in will are to There is a wall without showing heterogeneous wall a different with capillaries, each in- degree of permeability. capillaries. 8 The of permeability the first-mentioned upon the relative volume of the emanating from In the must the enter can boundary between a pass In picture. the of wall, the mainly depends shape and the forces capillary wall likewise playing the of the second type case wall the capillaries, important part. an molecules permeating media, when surface phenomena two of the third case the relations between the components and their of membrane, type nature are important. The mixed form of membrane shows all three previous groups. (Here, it should be stated that electric phenom- ena are treated not regarded The author’s the of mathematical that a the shall we diffusion by him. If have be to constants shape, of the findings permeating In are few a will physiological of no simple avail in cases, have to be membrane.) the the of case permeation etc. substance, but everything else indicates membrane physiological established that these varieties of the given membrane may be computed from the diffusion of the constants so forms protoplasmic membrane. constant the by him, complex less as the characteristics we are belongs to ever acquainted, arrive other amongst fourth sound in each of the wall substances, of the the to at a type, computation, things, with the the relative volume, capillaries and the surface concentration of the substance. A membrane described Fig. 15, that the in 3). There These watery by stable affording by are protoplasmic formed may be 1. model papers an films two membrane is autocomplex have the to Jong de arguments in be and support regarded coacervate power to of Bonner of as a separate a 3- the been (14, theory film'which phosphatide: two media. Fig- has potentialities, many Bungenberg Fig. 4. miscible, 9 There 2. between analogies are of amount of water these the action of electrolytes and coacervates that the on exercised on permeability. is Zone II Zones I fatty acid An 1. 2. of the lecithin molecules. electrolyte varied in or effective, electric the hydration, In two of the lipophile Bungenberg papers phosphatide If coacervates sensitizer is added a between the The of structure different ways substance may water. found between the are (vide act this § i). on: attraction, the functional activities to three organic an the the attraction 3. hydrophobe; be can the ions and the sensitizers are chains membrane hence it contains hydrophile, and III of sensitizers likened are will become growing tendency for the latter them to soap The coacervates. soap coacervate, the interval smaller and there line themselves up to 31) refer within the membrane. by amorphous to an molecules groups. Jong and Saubert (30, de will be a parallel. This will ultimately result in the formation of bi-refringing myeline tubes. The more the the will be is coacervate of more its directed, the less sensitizer is a for permeability the membrane described action of the CaCl 2, of be tri-complex brane (Fig. example traced opens model is acid and phosphatidic If very dense. between i.e. contain, the lower contend that, the from new up in the de-hydrating function of the model. The potentialities for discovery the mem- 4). the Now, will They further water. for directly systems it water the membrane, by Bungenberg de Jong and Bonner, electrolytes, cannot found within the built from up Ca ions. three This lecithin, components: film will be presumably replace the Ca ions by Na ions, then the interval we particles and, the correspondingly, permeability will increase. By the means of comprehensive erythrocyte wall, are molecules Bungenberg This model is biology (Fig. expected to Jong and de play a an the of phosphatidic acid Saubert exceedingly nature model in which membrane. important part in 5). In the latter three models, the membrane. suggest regarding (ioo) develops substituted for the chain of protein molecules of the researches Winkler There is referring to an there are electric as two well-defined sections of well as an a-polar part. the forces that rule the condition of the We complex as complex and symplex relations. We propose the expres“complex relations” for the forces in play between the ionized systems sion groups. “Symplex relations” is a term coined by Willstatter, by 10 Fig- which should like name we to 5- indicate the London-Van Waals der forces. Antagonism of the ions. § 3. It is conceivable of complex coacervation distinct 3 useful as strongly can be Co(CN) salt to (inorganic J With 2 with The a to Thus, complex positive nucleinate and escence, whilst with ) 1) the formation nH 0 2 coacervation) -> Gelatine-arabinate. nH 0 2 > can biocolloids coacervation, will form with agar it be no interposed 2 will show in a series, great coacervate slight coacervation will opaloccur. which shows thus: nucleinate of the complex relations, amylum solubile > glycogen. (en) 2 } 3](N03) 6. show complex a steadily increasing sensitiveness for [Co{Co(OH) as the Hexol-arabinate. nH2 0 gelatine arabinate, decreasing intensity arabinate > agar to a regarded causes become ill- to Hexol-cobalticyanide. -* “amylum solubile” negative biocolloids points solutions (complex coacervation) respect variations. solutions, true as that complex coacervation) Ca(N0 3)2 (autocomplex CaCl (12). sols The fact (13): Gelatine-chloride + Ca-arabinate + be hydrophile ions and colloid Ca-arabinate + Hexol-nitrate + regard detected in true + Hexol-nitrate 6 + KN03 to hydrated Complex coacervation is “insoluble” an K polyvalent, boundary between defined. of well as solutions a The same > series neutral salt, which 11 is added the coacervate, to decreasing i.e. the From quantitatively. density of charge of the particles is in the seen weight from increases of amount colloids. the left of density hexol reciprocal to hexol have been found equivalent Na-nucleinate < can right. to Teunissen weight. by form to the as cations of in this vation with manner, amylum < 26000 2264 coacervates with hexol number decreases. will sooner a given cation, increases On the other hand, autocomplex cause given biocolloid than those cations that have a the these coacervation the density charge of the importance. The tendency of negative biocol- higher valency a of 93) of autocomplex reciprocal 92, from following reciprocal Also, in autocomplex loids (34, charge at The Na-agar 1068 colloid ion is of great equivalent Teunissen: Na-arabinate < 294 the reverse But also decreasing. say that the number, arrived may be likened numbers the we is standpoint, the charge of various biocolloids needed hexol-nitrate, The the to be to seen light of electro-chemistry, established the gram of colloid charge per colloido-chemical a the coacer- lower a valency. The charge of almost every negative biocolloid can be reversed by using different salts (92, 94). This reversal will take place concentration higher cervation becomes groups belonging plex relations cations. (arabinate, sulphate, ionized between those concentrations affinity phosphate colloids colloid and for the reversal the less groups the to charge by sulphate K the ionic among colloids > Na affinity amongst other means Li > Na things, when alkali-cations. represented The by: respect to phosphate increases, colloids thus; > K. standpoint, we can divide complex colloid systems into uni-, di- and tri-complex systems Departing (Fig. 6). this is of > Li with the volume of the cations from define of bio- (lecithin, nucleinate), carboxyl colloids conspicuous, of the other hand, the as to charge pectate) becomes reversal with respect decreases com- voluminous been able of the a of the ionized polarizability ions at coa- and sulphate colloids (chondroitinagar). The influence of this polarizability of the pectinate, carragen, defining the The or the colloid anions is very essential in the (ionic spectra); he found typical differences spectra of On flocculation autocomplex difficult. more to as By using sundry salts, Teunissen has the different colloids point electro-chemical 12 6. Fig. Whether tri-complex a attractions y and x, which in their a uni- turn z is be to be may The di-complex. or tri-complex system it Now, is also made + true that a increases. In spite of the fact hexol numbers tendency to form complex relations w depends the on and w y, the formation of must be filled if a + y. tri-complex reciprocal the > z degree of density great for responsible following condition the as formed, formed: x readily be can compared with the attractions as (i.e. to be formed the can which the components that little lecithins density marked are of more charged are by high they show charge), tri-complex systems. In di-complex systems from the low positive colloids are weak, as may be guessed density of charge of the lecithin. This apparent contro- versy may be explained by the fact that the reciprocal hexol numbers but are this a we gauge are to formation of increase its ponents are Van the dhr of the of negative excess conclude that lecithin than tri-complex purity. egg In contrast albumen, Waals forces, to over will that of with gelatine, a more readily di-complex, tri-complexes, and From positive charges. tend the like, to when whose the the we com- London- existing between the long carbon chains of molecules, allows the be a to can play an essential part in lecithin tri-complexes.This coming into being of tri-complexes, whose existence would incompatible from the standpoint of complex relations exclusively. If the protoplasmic membrane be indeed regarded system of Ca, lecithin and we see ions. the action of salts On regarded his the as tri-complex on this membrane as an must antagonism of the that the protoplasmic membrane is to be auto-complex of lecithin, Bungenberg de Jong and decided antagonism of the ions, of a assumption an collaborators charge as protein, then, in the first instance, lecithin to coacervates their concentrate thereby starting (16, 18, from 26, attention the reversal 28). These on the of the data they compared with the “potential milieu” of Artemia salina (L.) (2,8,66). This showed them that 1 to 4 mol, in the region of concentrations of from germination of Artemia eggs corresponds. only the limit of 13 to certain extent, with the reversal of the a this of the reason working lecithin) is probably for the phenomenon. (unknown system why the Whether 1. depends quotient of the exceed place depend (N0 ) 2. If 3 using of adsorbed amount Nevertheless, medium to adding This 3. From this we 4. The is conclude may bearing becoming of the less forecast It is of these out directly voluminous probable likened However, it is to to the activity an We anion of anion of § 4. The it becomes yet 3 . phosphatide we in K,A this by that the see the disperse means that the grows smaller manifest in when in low even dealing, are principle, of the anions valency Under known in identical decreases on it is more biology, conditions, the rapidly, than that tri-complex system a may on be considered liken the activity example alkali-salts salts on to be or phosphate, cannot here charge be broadly. organisms on the reversal of the further expect can be of colloids. of the members of alkaline earth carboxyl the influence of a greater than that of or salt a a metals) sulphate possessing salt with an valency. of lipoid to a to of these action compounds, between and NaN0 ones. acting high valency Overton’s we that the influence of salts that (for may low a detail, possible group of metals colloids. A, complex cations, facts. the influence of salts in minute not a in not reason and A. that the activity of voluminous cations Though charge, importance. exceptional position also 2 adsorption to antagonism between Kj of essential K salt charge, shall observe that we of does antagonism Th(N0 3 ) of the more of the antagonism 2 concentrations, with the require reversal a the reversal antagonism charge of a are change very little. with respect K, K A. will Kj we cause of activity as understand 4 in the presence of 4 tri-complex to neutral salts two greater than between the reversal of the K A explanation a as of the cation. For this valency a autocomplex an (18): at s salt a facts Hence 10. found and NaNO antagonize we the on 2 as For water. place when concentrations Jong de accepted might be able we following the number of Bungenberg 2 take the must U0 moment), will on The the first be to germinate in distilled not antagonism combined, simple an treating the membrane By that at do eggs theory (the too of lecithin. charge membrane is the matter organic substances theory puts solubility of in down the on permeability for organic the membrane importance to trace coacervates. lipoids. Therefore, the influence of organic 14 substances act on the on acids), may also we of the phosphatide use protoplasmic The action on of membrane 1. the non-electrolyte the lipophile substances oleate and exert either phosphatide non-electrolytes as fatty model a depends system system, coacervate (17, upon upon this the stock model. on have been 33) 32, shrinking a In coacervates. the and occurs, film Rosenthal coacervates. It alcohol exert orientated or exercise a was Fig. electrolytes different the action that and a similar to dependence speak of a from that Saubert and of alcohols, coacer- and propyl- amyl-alcohol (Fig. 7). Other Fig. It would be better In the action number of soap ethyl- butyl- coacervates a recall we water. oleate upon urea methyl-, whereas oleate Jong, research 7- exhibit consequently be may for investigating actions, on opening action respect de established shrinking action an Bungenberg (83) included in his opening or this permeability ethers, ketones, urethanes and derivates of atoms. similar a upon (amorphous biological films cholesterin often vates. etc. itself, the action of these substances Booij chiefly charge, presence of sensitizers). Organic exercised compounds the esterified (i.e. (32). component of the the condition of the system system, of these facts: numerous upon As oleate-, stearate-coacervates, non-electrolyte a 2. 3. coacervates. lipophile part of phosphatides non- 8. upon the number of carbon dependence upon the length 15 of the carbon chain that chain. Thus, alcohol slightly less agent, while tert. and the to that has butyl-alcohol The influence of alcohols likened upon the oleate on well that as action same on colloid exercised remember that the must electric Action from uncharged phosphatide on coacervates, sensitizers of the that in be must by a zero renewed opening action. charge of the The occurrence A considerations. cervation of needed At the to zero find we phosphatide practically coacervates, and the the conversion of The employed. choline groups. at a This minimum is distance some phosphatides for curves un- into methyl-, initial opening, ultimately followed to an is we important an There coacervate. the with the corresponds coacervate. of this minimum is explained by the following given quantity of CaCl2 is essential to the coa- phosphatides. reverse may be (85), in his the protoplasmic membrane appreciable decrease of volume which an in shrinking coacervates ethyl- and propyl-alcohol (Fig. 8), after pointing show weak a Saubert (17). Although and group action. inappreciable, when working state in the fact pleasantness as phosphatide molecule contains these groups is the oleate acts opening namely the phosphate constituent, on models. on an hydrophile shrinking agent, isobutyl- a coacervates thesis, discusses the action of alcohols as as acts butyl-alcohol sec. so, of the position butyl-alcohol n. the On charge adding alcohol, the of the amount phosphatide, of be can reduced. charge, the effective attraction, exerted by the particles in the coacervate, will be found greatest, hence the volume decreases. Once the zero weaken and point of charge is passed, the effective attraction will the bulk of the coacervate will increase. Saubert measured the action of alcohols phatide coacervates at different points the volume of on of CaCl phos- concentration. 2 this theory, he found alternately an increasing and a decreasing influence of methyl- and ethyl-alcohol, according to the Following is degree of CaCl2 concentration. Propyl-alcohol agent, butyl- and amyl-alcohol an alcohol on the carbon chains and that on a condensed system When the system action also grow in on as opening an depends on two facts: the action the electric condition of the system. the point of charge, zero condition will be importance always shrinking agents. The action of approximates the the electric on are density of then the this action will appreciable, charge of the colloid increases. As the protoplasmic membrane is regarded the action of alcohols as the an orientated phatide system, often be compared with the action of these compounds colloid systems. Whereas on permeability butyl- and amyl-alcohol on act as phosmust orientated shrinking 16 agents amorphous oleate coacervates, on opening agents as is on centration, find the former we liquid oleate crystals. follow the Traubean rule to seen alcohols upon erythrocytes). to (vide the haemolytic action of obtain the of NaCI degree liquid crystals, increased resistance of the system correspondingly act influence An increase of the which is essential to The latter con- causes a the influence to of alcohols. We shall have fatty acids that reckon with another feature of to of the lecithin. Rosenthal’s methyl-, ethyl- and propyl-alcohols act influences. Now, if we take K-oxystearate, shrinking action caused by propyl-alcohol. a hydrophile considerable ricinolate (oxyoleate) the ethyl-alcohol identical group into action the will be the will shall be faced with observed if a carbon chain is of we of curve practically shorten An constant. the chain of Kand adding methyl- on a the introduction propyl-alcohol remain upon causing shrinking Hence, decline, whereas volume will we lipophile part of Thus, importance. are the (83) confirm opening agents as K-stearate, whereas butyl- and amyl-alcohols of importance: experiments fatty Propyl-alcohol will show a shrinking action on K-laurate, ethyl-alcohol shows an inappreciable shrinking, followed by opening, acids. whereas It is we must in the of our when coming dealings with the action of alcohols ascribe this protoplasmic direct action a this influence the action to § When an is felt, lie close on the Traubean biological objects, the fatty acid chains of course, the eventuality If the concentrations, at which together, then this may be attributed upon the electric substances, there explanation of the facts. important, no The elective 2. A 3. Adsorption 4. (excepting, metabolism). on on condition of the membrane. recording the elective permeability of the plasmic membrane certain most 1. the influence exerted to membrane across Permeability. 5. for open up. believed that, generally rule in will methyl-alcohol sieve- or Electrostatic the four doubts others solubility filterlike the at are mechanisms Though these, in within may be the cell our likely opinion, to offer are the forwarded. membrane. action. protoplasmic attraction or surface. repulsion between the substance and membrane. Each of these four theories has found staunch supporters. Overton found a correlation in oils, and their rate between the of solubility of organic compounds penetration. His lipoid theory suggests that 17 they be can dissolved in the lipoid components of the protoplasmic membrane. Ruhland notes great influence of the size of the molecule upon a permeation of the compounds the molecules have (ultrafilter slower a Traube observed that the plays membrane as this is the other on obliged look for to by combination the first theories surface. by negative a by it. facts, numerous comprising as that so many facts place, in lipoids activity, according Meyer cules be well as at first has the as adsorption-affinity adsorbed his greater onto Waals stances Collander ceratophylla an rate a the for many An at of the ultrafilter concur to organic compounds. a quicker in substances are the London- wall sub- rate factor certain are for their than lipoids and the one would expect, even the the sense, but a molecules whose size rate of permeation. lipoidfilter theory, is All of which is not recognition of the fact that both The been examined in many 45, 5L 59, 60, 61, 62, Generally, there in lipoids. On the other hand, important in permeation. has solubility theory (who prefer Beggiatoa for their establish theory in the proper principles lipoid exception is constituted by the small-sized that permeate only deciding these facts Here, the permeating and correlation between the experiments) admit that there not Hence, HaNsteen Cranner permeation. judging from their solubility supporters mole- the a fight in favour of the adsorption partisan of the lipoid theory (56). Winkler’s to permeation. molecules chains. (37, 38, 39) has measured the permeability of Chara Wallr. obvious of The capillary homologous colloids. sympathy. forces between the decisive are and the with small-sized model reconciles these theories with each other. der lipoid the putting up theory (55), becomes Van and adsorption Traube’s rule, increase in to intensely of narcosis after also, that the (76) maintains that many narcotics cannot theory remark we only be divorced from each other with difficulty. can solubility a those by the charge of attracted are possessing by the fact that the repelled are supported a out determined hand, permeating possible. In is ones than rate protoplasmic is Anions (Michaelis). cations, of the quicker a borne the on electrolytes Each of these theories is is Large-sized than the smaller Compounds part. at permeate and of permeability membrane, one living cell. adsorption-affinity strongly adsorbed are The the permeation important an affinity small a former the also adsorption-affinity having into theory). substances great of rate permeability of organic organisms (7, 37, 38, 39, 63, 64, 67, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 88, 95,96,99,101). 2 18 In all of these researches we both are confronted with the theory (or adsorption theory) and the ultrafilter theory. The of the membrane, shown for the bear greater witness in is theories, the lipophile brane. well as The ratio either the lipoid in countered of the and others As cells from simple to of The electrolytes. make — establish the other three. our to problem a difficulties others anions, to en- cations to very intricate one. understand the influence of salts between tins relationship a Moreover, it Efforts with one More is plasm reconcile to the another not are under principles theory (Nathanson) mosaic favoured as a of salts consideration and the emulsion theory (Clowes) solution of the the action of these substances biological point of with view. Most the on that compounds conspicuous is decreases under the influence of CaCl of the permeability are the influence of salts Stewart and . (88) have observed that the permeability is greater in of is noteworthy that these salts do ethylene Gellhorn glycol. of buffered to staining is accelerated by The MgCl . or 2 considerably counteract Organic we are less MgCl Finally, advance of CaCl 2 to not water or influence the (50) has submitted the solutions of neutral red. treatment makes 2 of it is needed oppose salt, finally The rate of with univalent salts coloration impossible; NaCl and KC1 than to . substances, then an addition presented with lated and for 2 It Strongylocentrotus placing them in a solution of nile-blue eggs of Arbacia eggs while Jacobs solutions of NaCl and KC1 than in solutions of CaCl seawater. permeation from interesting 2 and — problem. permeability. Both NaCl and KC1 stimulate permeability, this the — important than the permeation of substances into the proto- membrane, when dealing on and principle that the appears permeation strongly influenced by cell metabolism (71, 89, 90, 91). is of prevalence given object. a permeability than the permeation of the salts proper. It is far on a principle in being permeable both to between both permeate determines the two rule, it will be found easier a can by the charge of the membrane, is especially permeation some again former the ultrafilter or the — difference great through through the hydrophile parts of the mem- as The action, exhibited important organisms present another picture. model the longer apparent. Compounds no plants and animals lipoid than of the ultrafilter principle, other some Winkler’s Most principle. one of the though Beggiatoa and Again, by the object under observation, is deciding of either prevalence lipoid structure too, a influence difficulty: again it will in certain be instances a (4, 5). But here permeability will be stimu- permeability now checked. substance may move in spite of a 19 difference in concentration. This part. is permeation meation under the influence of a model be by Teorell (91) when passive; the cell of plants virtually depends acid) is line a the can the Donnan the through Hence, too, continually substance present establish to salts respiration. draw the to of taking-in cell permeation, an do we between adenoid permeability (Hober) permeation of a given substance hairs root think not it permeability and physiological or permeation, the on possible (Overton) (e.g. be substituted for can of per- difference in concentration. From a learn that this we active an adenoid action an (for instance ions tending Thus, equilibrium). metabolism takes as to given compound a formed within the cell, it outside cell Here, referred “passive” may be passive, though, in reality, cell metabolism will be chiefly responsible for it. And He as thus found enter we the realm of Straub’s difference between the a sort of this difference. equilibrium, secondary however, two as a is very while occurs an acid without further of the energy: 1. of the membrane, no (root 2. than a cases, There are into the Respiration ions will diffuse whereas within egg) special some diffuses of it. out a maintain to hairs). Oxygen case hen’s more in interest; 2 boundary. In this be a not required difference will (mostly C0 ) will pass in the surface the pores this important functionally potential suppliers cell, of energy is source Generally, phenomenon it This, he maintains, is respiration. 90). concentration of the yolk and that of the white of an egg (experimenting with and put this down to (89, researches osmotic through the membrane trans- portation of electrons will take place. In both if occur membrane. rate, while is he cases centration Into a large a (harmony), out as is at amount added, ions are plays This will much of the concentration the vessel. many Hence he to sulphuric Many it will be occur will varies situation K is much ions than of the surroundings sea-weeds). establish concludes: considerably understood that in the between the If itself. electrolytic one “kills” for the As different living cell great composition (vide the strong a slow acid diffuses cations more a concentration stable a of the at solutions. The the membrane, vacuole sap and the equilibrium a constant gives rise con- regularly through equivalent mobility important (though incomprehensible) part in this. (Michaelis), found in the differences in sulphuric acid is poured taken up from an differences as than outside the former, within ions ion diffuses an of salt solution of point while or vessel the vessel. which stronger inside Li ions substance porous present outside models in which develops a K of the concentration protoplasm, true 20 If is energy condition continually (harmony), produced at from diverging this energy is made up of electric circuits, in. set At any These of theory it is as Can the plex the on depend composition of the medium. From protoplasmic membrane be regarded membrane should stimulated others (14, be 15) regarded further to the effect to as an biological that the will cause point of charge of the CaCL water. If the for this and cells, found for a Ca(N0 )2 3 a This is this a influence Ca-autocomplex NaN0 opened up, by importance of making salts in The to numerous 3 . a and by such zero in- phosphatide a definite with theory. to a Moreover, exist. strong on structure NaN0 3 as does original these be work reached De Haan membrane. hence antagonized, confirm a the to not concentration is of the experiments of was the membrane. which is comprehensive while membrane, concentrations Strong Weak have 3 protoplasmic rule of Allium water the Co(NH ) 8 C13 (luteoCl 3) the very great study of the behaviour of concentrations. minima produced in De Haan’s permeability curves are correspond with the concentrations at the reversal of charge of the phosphatide system we are first the action of the salts, on the and the further increase of a of neutral salts, concur of lecithin His at subsequent a permeability for to exerted the to phosphatide (53) defined the influence of salts the until not be a found. permeability. valency action opening ascribes said of to be ruled decreases. water increase he found the on weak concentration; an on the facts influence an cause of be De Haan 3-valent cations permeability at will lead water but attained, has direction. of water; amount certain concentrations assumption, 2 or expected, at permeability will condensing will concentration permeability for concentrations salts be 2 membrane, then, cepa com- system, research in this decrease of the a minimum will a crease with 1, a protoplasmic autocomplex An increase of strength of the CaCl2 concentration in coacervate minima as saying that the theory forwarded by Bungenberg Bonner Jong and On occur. the membrane on system? It goes without de expected, directly inferred that the membrane consists be may be to If occur. then electro-osmosis may phases. two § 6. stationary a may differences in the ionic concentration will rate differences, (mobility of the ions) and his boundary, a equilibrium, to trace ruling charge of the protoplasm. Wakkie permeability. is obvious employed by Bungenberg (23), when plasmolyzing It de Jong, De that Haan, De Haan Spirogyra cells, measured the 21 velocity of the trations of the salt. attain to the protoplasm in the electric Using which CaClj by value of means be may electro-endosmosis. they the on the assume As adsorbed. haviour, This raised under the influence potentially found they the (vide Under at exhibits the on to no vesicles U0 sequence: 2 With 2 reappear; the be can rule valency action of salts on used they means a is be- electrophoretic behaviour of the (57), is due droplet. layer, adsorbed employed by are may be formed Ehrbg. This phenomlesion. Two factors to are conspicuous proof regions of concentration Neutral salts show Ca < Na. the hexol-nitrate. Salts This of counteracted. said that this charge of exert a a vesicles salts can antagonism § 1). The (vide same rule in on the butyl- make them gives rise applies membrane, reversed by similar action the of in the membrane. hyaline Other follow this action powerful phosphatides formation hence it may be continuous sur- negative conclusion. the existence of to solution a of arabinate appear. Concentrations of the cations hexol-nitrate, alcohol the on be to the influence of alcohols < luteo < points the to charge and the elasticity of the membrane. His of the Traubean rule. ion this film the existence of a Hartkamp by it: the findings regarding U0 at a surface of Paramaecium caudatum essential where action an condition, which morphological assume arrive to investigated enon, answer permeability and vastly different conditions hyaline vesicles the cell are § 2) of this onto though entirely different protoplasm, them on hydrophile colloid with a droplet Danielli and Davson also onto by representative film not re- charge of the protoplasmic membrane. Indeed, coacervate though unable the at phosphatide system of this membrane model a phosphatide concen- were extrapolation, they found 500 m.eq. Likewise, rounded, through adsorption, charge. they Arriving . present controversy between the action of salts the influence varying at theirs, point of charge with CaCI2 zero versal concentration of field apparatus like a the means of a charge to to of complex system. Saubert plasmic (85) investigates the influence of alcohols membrane and colloid models. different lines of conduct in their action (vide § 4). Firstly, they may chains; may complex support secondly, they each other. influence of alcohols permeability have some on semblance, may phosphatide influence the electric Saubert of Chara on on the protofollow two coacervates change the interval between the carbon These components. Alcohols two powers finds some phosphatide ceratophylla. though n. may condition either semblance coacervates between and that Generally speaking, the propyl-alcohol acts of the oppose on on or the the curves Chara cells 22 as shrinking a the fact by agent. centrations than This is as an ascribed The charge. plained act on phosphatide on divergence of the The second that alcohols point of divergence the cell living to difference in a shrinking influence, he continues, action the on direct measurings (ioo) Winkler manner. of the red blood or the con- to). : density be must oppose ex- themselves behave in charge, erythrocytes puts the different a whether the membrane question should be corpuscles with experimenting of of the i charge of the complex system. Whereas the cells under review either exclude to furnished (the ratio being coacervates by him is much lower at regarded as a complex. By erythrocytes in isotonic and hypotonic solutions discovered a maximum resistance existing at the isopoint. The charge of the erythrocyte is influenced by neutral sugar, he electric salts, according neutral on three arguments sistance continuous to a salts, according is to valency rule. Resistance also depends in favour are determined by of and that, erythrocytes, of From attraction. These valency. theory according a electric facts Winkler concludes that the of the rules parallel two which to the re- following represent the membranes stromata they determine their simultaneously, stability: the isoelectric the ionic the same points in (vide spectra stromata and the membrane of the Hence, and complex subsist. an cannot concur; erythrocytes in various of salt is of cations valency 2 up increased the Likewise, Ultimately, regarded both as a to In salts (hypertonic surmises pn an according were found to From of a correct: a show show ranging such negative valency following this, it is negative the a hypotonic the to destroyed haemolysis). con- colloid. stromata are tri-complex system of lecithin, stromatine and corpuscles may be lined A up parallel, great many with properties their of the explained when closely inspecting this model of the membrane. Both the An resistance autocomplex cation. The lipoid molecules are paraffin chains towards the exterior. red blood Its 11. membrane is a this complex, a the presence of pn 7 by cations, erythrocyte cluded that the membrane is be is erythrocyte electrolyte medium (NaCl) the erythrocyte shows solutions rule. out and erythrocytes stromatine. charge, ranging from pn to erythrocytes semblance. between lecithin a and stromata sequence; the stabilities of great In stromata § 3) of pores and the lipoid theories bear system. explanation can now be offered for the changes of permeability 23 under the influence of electrolytes, hypertonic and By in Bungenberg tialities of (Fig. 5). simple The the in so row be can of lipoid molecules membrane, the potenincreased considerably potential membranes is very great for the many the of the constituent factors may be varied: and the ratio of the nature permeability for amount different of is water lipoids essential. are defined, amongst other things, by cholesterin present which, naturally, may vary cells. The ratio of the cations 4. haemolysis. a protein may vary. Both 3. membrane model that reason antagonism of the ions, the Jong and Bonner de The number of The 2. this the the reversible protein molecules for substituting the 1. haemolysis greatly affects the stability of the mem- brane. Winkler’s membrane model shows It reconciles with 1. The 2. differences reduced in the to another the one of permeability differences important properties: two existing permeability theories. organisms exhibited or cells can by the tri-complex be com- ponents. When with comparing under the developed great variations in their The lecithin another the three membrane models one direction of Bungenberg de Jong, we note properties. uni-complex (Bonner) is chiefly governed by sym- plex relations. Of the three models under consideration this particular one salts. at is most greater the (The the reversal the of When the of relations exceedingly .) The tri-complex to contain cations becoming are In this case, i.e.p. will be found in (Saubert), systems to that grow less. are systems the number of At this exchangeable. The important. more important in tri-complex active part. very 2 7- = sensitivity for pu and salts membrane will greatly influenced by of lecithin, the lower the concentration with CaCl pu It is changes. pu purity proceeding next complex to charge, neighbourhood shall find the an sensitive where we point Here, latter are protein plays potential membranes is great. It goes many without that saying potentialities, many we are to regard these models intermediate stages being as also so con- ceivable. § 7. Introduction the to experimental part of this research. This research aims plasmic membrane. If at we investigating want to the structure of the proto- ascertain whether the membrane 24 is complex system, a we may let ourselves be guided by the following criteria: The neutralization of 1. cordance with rules The influence of neutral salts 2. At the 3. we point of charge, zero are find to Disintegration 4. As the some components of the On the the arrive is the at the cell. we are to Hence, unexpected an of the as manner salts due being pound is it of as to a no an plexes will be a in a to establish any on cell. at all. lines, being an (i.e. shall we cell We manner. of the we do the regarded not we We a process in a surroundings. biological which the It is the cell changed possible that, an permein interpretation nature, are be at yet of they our will disadvantage if know what shall be able of substances to catalysis, com- observe of com- be very we want phy- permeate, if the influence even leaves We findings membrane along protoplasmic stead the model explained from a a course the presence assume be can internal system. several times in the can surface shall we The membrane membrane) in respiration, as we cannot and medium which moment upon the hypothetical nature as action Although Nevertheless this surface latter, to observations our straight-forward siological data that though cell in different great presumption somewhat the 97). by closely examining substances, and likewise valuable if all of or the cell wall. change of the membrane, the influence of within the of (23, where active part. and faced with this research, re study of the membrane model elect we play to may be ascribed shall be our a to solid membrane. their results by organic ability will be noticeable in our object. of a of indirect being the region to resort long boundary is expected influenced chitin knowledge within protoplasmic to measure principle study none measurings of the charge on charge is a reliable gauge when the even explain the behaviour of the we process further themselves of the membrane position in without cellulose, some only by availing ourselves shall have we cells molecules, studied direct from surface substances may be adsorbed that tend The membrane contact, few a may be protoplasm that is enclosed changes a con- water. of but charge, derive may not structure the measure often be in a membrane from charge in it Hence, we But protoplasmic alter to a the investigating other solid wall, dealing with exhibit must field. thickness a excepting When the cell’s surface. charge of amount the electric the membrane has living cell. the on ac- valency. when effective attraction is strongest, minimum a in of these criteria, of rule. valency tinuous if complex relations by neutral salts in parallel two though the no room for 25 Also, in respiration permeability. in one way This is made 1. the reducing 3. the as into (89, (sugar and similar substances) permeates towards the first resp. systems, membrane of the itself is chain in the aggregated are and oxidising an two On hand, the other lines physiological be may we referred when to Research is select and this It is object our organic defining to factors which mutual as far are uniin salts Organic factors. essential are or a compounds we are may has been established. a coming an hydro- one chemical) formed to saying this. of the constituent we shall influence exerted upon the third instances the first individual are As no and second groups, too, will between the particles on object these factors ruling the situation, complete available, erythrocyte This is salts must groups theTraubean rule, we data (either furnish cannot biological a precise membrane. An endeavour in this direction any The into Thus, complex. It goes without The influence upon the interval different. is the subdivided tri-complex on influence either concerned with in attraction, the of sensitizer present. In each 1. be ionized be of factors groups forces can the various across of the influence of the Waals will of certain The results hydrophobe part of the membrane depends mainly amount be this groups that there when non- cell metabolism. influence three main di-complex (cf. Fig. 6, § 3). group; in all other the along “physiological” processes. particular have much influence be involved. in on the condition of the to between proportion Generally, find that as der Each of these main attractions such not a that a for the condition of the membrane: electric groups. and life that there hydration and the London-Van in the trace its on the model, on catalysis. permeability shall then compare with we well-known fact phobe exist system this: in order compounds substances a responsible the reducing often confronted with are conducted like investigation same and oxidising surface as permeability of the membrane largely dependent We of membrane, 90). Only the latter salts involved that, are with the substrate. contact interior, the ferments, as ferments many come must possible: the substrate as 2. another, or be borne regarded (also specific out in region wall is a might powerfully description of be undertaken: sensitized system. by the haemolytic action of all alcohols which as NaCl) of (100) may colloido- or a neutralization of the the membrane will concentration). symplex relations. subsist Furthermore, (at the least in In a wall will be 26 fairly firm; The 2. stromata Amoeba wall NaCl and remains is that exerted It distilled in the the that, appears (24, 57) unknown on ranks destructive with contrast This of the case sensitized. membrane is between Ca haemoglobin. while the only and when possible the colloids) are erythrocyte. The influence it though, presumably, far as membrane will action from much less will differ from erythrocyte. close action presumably water. (existing powerful than of alcohols 3. in relations free prepared is destructive a exert intact complex more KC1 be can (35, 36) of the wall as the to all Here, (also too, of in placed when Salts Paramaecium concerned, (formation alcohols injured be Amoeba). is erythrocyte. distilled NaCl) exert the note we The vesicles). (in water stabilizing a influence. In the next chapters we shall be concerned with two objects, namely the pollen of Lathyrus odoratus L. var. Pinky and bakers’ yeast. we It shall be shall be be to on the various the influence of some the action of alcohols be faced with to the tackle the as us (the protoplasmic complex system) when proffering compounds to carrier. For the influence of when ascribing not Chapter 111, § 4), (cf. of the present Even complex between active or must we relations, restrict an complex and symplex relations, important part in so as it is many processes CHAPTER EXPERIMENTS § 1. we may such group ourselves successful examination of the membrane proper from the of many changes of the membrane like fermentation those between enzyme and substrate colloidal the ruling of life. processes neutralization a a differences on problem from various angles; theory accepted by regarded of explanation substances task guided by membrane is an our as and to a standpoint the membrane that plays of life. II. WITH LATHYRUS POLLEN. Introductory. In some 1934 Bungenberg experiments germination program of de regarding Jong and Lathyrus pollen. along which further research that the material Henneman the influence In this was of paper to (25) published neutral salts be they on the developed directed “in a order might be compared with the behaviour of colloid 27 models (mainly studied by This is cm quantity of pollen is placed in 3 salt solution. Ba > La centage of Na > This when rights plotted transition from be the same to If the 3. for ion of shows germination. these plates solution 25 § will the con- advantages: graphically They have equal the abcissae, to salts. belong to the by but family, the transition same parameter, which is log. one point of each of the curves.” remarkable behaviour: (50 m.eq.) liberate readily do we Ca detoxify to ions. the Even NaCl, a in even observe not warning against are the happens the highest depression of a of use agar-plates 2.5 m.eq. a CaCl KC1 solution resp. 2 of m.eq. 2. is the Measuring The method modified. slightly germination. Bungenberg employed by 3 Firstly, we of the salt be measured. We shall have to strong solution of sugar Off the flowers water. for each to and the stamens we point be cm order 3 In ). keep to poured this out off the a a A little cut we operate using a obtain a 20 the are will per in and (taking sugar stamens 3 a solution which — is tubes. operated by hand, after which droplet liquid. a 20 per of this The cent pollen pollen sugar grains solution suspension is submitted are ( now .05 (abt. — in carefully centrifuge of the tube. Next, centrifuge are flowers containing suspension The latter moderately a burst in distilled carinae cent solution cm 3 collected in pollen floral leaves a tubes test 3 and floral branches we These carinae the supernatant again in point). back into brisk action of of various pollen way to pollen grains measured) pollen. shake loose the the as Jong and Henneman number of a prepare cm sucrose de (40 per cent) solution containing 3 20 per- logarithm of salt following comparable a a able toxicity: the logarithmic x-distance, representing various They be germinated plotting plot arithmetically. we be characterised concentration used the the sucrose logarithmically. curves (concentration) The Ca They 3 of sequence recommend the level of the blank S-shaped range may cm the five salts used in their to following has It may appear that the 2. been active in low concentration are, are disadvantage when at a as the Ca. > procedure The salts which mixture of 3 a germination obtained against centration. “1. found they K > have After 4 hours the percentage of pollen grains is measured. With regard experiments, which phosphatides) years.” by them; applied the method A small and 3 of coacervates in the past few us to we the pour suspended cm 3 for each dropped into each 28 of the tubes test which hours germinate. to the pollen grains testing HC1 2 and n 1 the on ultimately of this is cm cane passed scope while, established. we may Though that the say than no more of the trying When we pollen tube be visible, The percentage of grain has fully germinated. in this establish, to found that the salt concentration. the influence of manner, arrived curves After number a germinated grains is germination is plotted against the logarithm of the salts, results. Now counted under the micro- are tip a fix to equal volumes of dishes. the percentage of simultaneously, have We have been the best gave into the Petri pollen grains (generally about 250) of of mixture a sugar two germinated shall hours. two then for the influence we are to measure we We left percentage of the of these expiration cent 40 per 3 hours little time. If a fixatives; many .1 the is pollen of concentrations of different salts, series a shaken. thoroughly dishes where the Measuring grains demands quite of then are empty the tubes into Petri would at some reproduce. not Even the blanks in (exclusively 20 per cent sugar) showed variations germination of from 50 to 90 per cent. At times KC1 chose to be toxic in a reached a .003 it of strength germinating affect solution, n. power of the germination; after at other We n. .01 times must, rain the blank was low (up the found was to had stabilize to The weather pollen grains. a until the solution not therefore, try 50 per to cent.), being high (abt. 90 per cent.) when the weather was fine. By exposing the pollen grains for some time to a comparatively stable climate would (the reproduce of KC1, CaCl laboratory), and sucrose like considerably vary that of the flowers Germination, carried instructions discretion a are when be at constant its to the pollen same 20 per cent, issued. Nevertheless, judging the results. select our no appreciable experiments maximum. All for our measurings suspension on one we for a shall have if example, series the 2 days. are now solution unless other of the alkali and is greatest fully experiments sugar For influence compare with another the advisable 2, shows being kept in the laboratory too, will in out days. The KC1 and sucrose 10). The influence of CaCl 5 days. reproductiveness of are that influence of five course It appears that the or amyl-alcohol n. get results to measured the we pollen of flowers that had been and 9 (Fig. and methyl- variation in the when the on 1, 2, 3, 4 trying were Thus, 2 kept in the laboratory for curves we readily. more salts, taken same to we it from day. use our want will one to be and 29 Fig. The § 3. As on the by HQ ated of studying preceded the grains, a de Fig. into investigation we must joint take 20 per the influence into our of the is varied sugar solution, pu cent, and, after measuring the percentage of germin- by demonstrates that the means region of the quinhydrone where the pu does 11. depress germination, is comparatively small. In this connexion the influence of but salts Henneman in their salts of the medium. It is essential that the former is determined 11 of 10. germination. Jong and Fig. not on influence pn an germination in and NaOH electrode. by salts some Bungenberg the alterations in be study by when account Ph influence stated paper, Fig. 9. whose a few salts may be behaviour would be accurately established. Many worth investigating on account of 30 their influence or too give rise colloids, tolerably successive two Lathyrus odoratus that is have been either low too well in either there season, (cf. Fig. Fig. forced into the alkali to cations; and to be a 13). In 1938 marked we were 12 13. 1939, however, be muddled. It is appeared 12 the existence accepting in experimenting Though results could be reproduced Fig. peared pn a we summers pollen. difference between both years almost to high. During with on of a lyotropic series for the sequence of the salts impossible to find a ap- relationship between the sequence of the univalent cations and the ionic spectrum of any known is far less such appreciable relative there are cations, 1939. differ. amount potential Lathyrus too, and exhibit When, for this factors that was not example, will different be- 15), though the difference salts. might be responsible grown in the the ratio of the electrolytes Possibly, of Ca, 14 than that found in alkali many variation. a in 1938 and brane did bivalent 1938 and 1939 (cf. Fig. Naturally, for The colloid. haviours in there is a same in the spots mem- difference in the greatly influence the action of the 31 alkali part. cations since antagonism of the ions is playing The action exerted the other hand the by the anions solutions so also will be an active different. On activity of the alkaline earth cations will be pretty (It might be well worth while constant. salt the as to to study germination in different grow Lathyrus of the in different pollen surroundings.) This is borne Co(NH ) C1 3 AgNOo 6 3 14. Fig. 15. by the fact that in both out hexol-nitrate (luteoClg), correspond Fig. to certain a When amines act as salts. curves This is lengthening the carbon chains, depression There — exists and CaCl 2 . will occurs Traubean rule a When 1 be lower, : strong keeping — constant by adding CaCl 2 (Fig. 21). we 16 the for curves ic), T1N0 and 3 and (Fig. 17). On 18 and demonstrated 19). the The by Fig. 20. the concentrations in which though the ratio governed by the will not antagonism germination occurring here), years page (Fig. extent other hand, the anions show different hydrochloric (cf. can be attained. between 50 m.eq. the univalent LiCl, NaCl make the pollen or salts KC1 (no grains germinate 32 Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Fig. 18. Fig. 19. 33 From the experiments under review it would appear that the of Lathyrus is base not in every respect a suitable observations of the influence of our plasmic membrane. Especially object upon electrolytes the great to the proto- on for sensitivity pollen which changes in the pu and the variations in the behaviour towards certain electro- Fig. lytes are considered in already towards However, disadvantageous. that may be have Fig. 20. pointed alkali to cations the there are the marked the fact and salts that with variations in different between CaCl antagonism § 4. The influence of quite a few results light of the membrane theory. plained from the antagonism of the ions. We to 21. 2 may be furthermore and alkali substances organic anions can We the behaviour ex- point salts. upon germin- ation. In 1938 we have measured but did with the salts, In these we used compounds, too, there Fig. few alcohols a a constant is 20 a per cent (Fig. sugar 22). As we concentration. difference between Lathyrus 22. 3 34 used in 1938 and that employed in but these differences refer and not the Traubean rule. to working the sequence. In with alcohols, in the This 1939 did exception slightly a we not of As which importance of the butyl-alcohols. have their influence with much on 24), confirming year; all previous found were to be 23. the influence act in a molecular one of (Fig. structure is 25. organic somewhat substances higher concen- A vivid 24). furnished picture by Fig. another the behaviour of various semblance, And, germination. act in approach concentration each naturally, comparatively 26). The action of phenylethyl-alcohol lower influence the than that of other takes n. whose closely phenylethyl- low 25 isomeric Tertiary butyl-alcohol and isopropyl-alcohol, phenylpropyl-alcohol what an in Fig. concluded from compares 23 and 22, higher concentration than in 1939. than that of the normal alcohols formulae (Fig. found methyl-alcohol, upon soap coacervates, isoalcohols of the (cf. Fig. the absolute concentration 24. may be tration to occur Fig. Fig. 1939 exclusively in and concentration place in a amyl-alcohol; some- it is 35 reminiscent same takes is felt; felt coacervates of activity by n. on the practically phenylethyl-alcohol amyl-alcohol. only in fairly high concentration that ether (Fig. 26) exerts germination. The influence of dipropyl-ether in much lower concentration. Ketones (Fig. centrations found acetophenone ethyl-ketone Lathyrus ketone, too; 27), too, with soap experiments of here, oleate the that shown over depressing action is In hexyl-alcohol. precedence It is a of influence < Fig. 27. behave oleate — We we as coacervates. in pollen. its 26. The might apparently < expect sequence coacervates methylbutyl-ketone acetone < Fig. — occurs lies between that also in the of from active the con- dipropyl-ketone diethyl-ketone measured the influence of activity of < < methyl- germination methylpropyl- diethyl-ketone and methylethyl-ketone. Carbamates (Fig. (urethanes) 28); this again oleate in the coacervates. bring may be out once compared more the Traubean rule directly with the action Glycol, glycerine and propylene glycol neighbourhood of sucrose (Fig. 23 and 29). are on found 36 We saw is chains carbon atoms coacervates, exert the a depressing we are stands This on trying For < picture and the influence fact agents while 83). action to on with act as Fig. 28. Fig. 29. germination. oleate might well For each that, in others coacervates we that (in oleate coacervates) opening will be < isobutyl-alcohol < propylcarbamate influence, (This having and condensing actions. shown this < < series been compare homologous advantage of showing up clearly isopropyl-alcohol. of the We another. one find the compound has the propyl-alcohol ether the number of to opening series Diethyl-ketone n. likened be in the the border-line between procedure ences. concentration, The main difference lies compounds some organic substances in homologous lower which may increasing, homologous series a shrinking action, whereas all of these organic non-electrolytes a exert readily felt in coacervates. soap on that the influence of more sec. tert. gives the differ- sequence: butyl-alcohol butyl-alcohol but reconstructed an < < imperfect from 17, 33 37 The influence germination of Lathyrus pollen is practically the on identical: Propyl-carbamate butyl-alcohol sec. alcohol < diethyl-ketone < ether < < the result is data of various over, in preparations of oleate the germination occur § 5. (ether and of Stability the influence of many that carbamate) distance between the first and .85. Hence, the few variations of minor are importance. in distilled remain on When establishing the germination of the grains it water. the intact in certain concentrations. bursting of the grains is easily investigated with the aid of extinctometer, the as of disintegration cloudiness the the into the placed now In thermopiles. source, the other receive a contains different one to zero of the of the by be We cloudiness we the are containing graded As means sugar. fast of The then both as a stability preparing sugar rheostat that is measure pipette, amounts of two cm will thermopiles pollen are be brought circuit of The rheostat is light intensity. sucrose too on (10 cm cm introduce into 3 can in the placed germination grains (Fig. 30). especially hours light while light dispersed and absorbed series of a flasks constructed piration of these of the we 2 water of resistance will be indicative concentrations possible two galvanometer light between side of the dispersed and absorbed. light Erlenmeyer wooden tray, the a that the way on either the of light, in other words the galvanometer comparing the influence of that exerted by of thermopiles. The of on A of source of these cups contains read in percentage of the total are flask). of a The Moll’s with consists position of the galvanometer means amounts graded in such may one pollen suspension, a amount will be deflected. The back circuit and front of the latter, If considerably extinctometer oppositely connected. are common placed. are cups increases This grains. thermopiles whose circuits is the grains. compounds these by different coacervates mutually compared. More- are logarithmic bursts Lathyrus pollen appears < butyl- tert. established were conspicuously fine. In oleate the last substance of the series is but that < isopropyl-alcohol. Considering the fact that these data observers, isobutyl-alcohol < propyl-alcohol n. 3 3 for the in each the Erlenmeyer Erlenmeyer flasks in shaken for this with measure Erlenmeyer flasks suspension then To 20 2 purpose. the cloudiness of the per hours On cent, in the a ex- liquid in each of Erlenmeyer flasks is quickly measured with the extinctometer. The values shown (percentage of absorbed light) are against the sugar concentrations (Fig. 30). It appears that. resistance plotted 38 Fig. in low sugar centual concentration, that cloudiness) sugar concentration such to In an order sucrose to and 5 3 Once the series is suspension for 20 2 per in hours. cent, 20 As no grains the influence salt solution prepared, per no cent, we (high in. sets In surroundings increases of add all salts, 5 into the cm 3 40 per along the line 2 cm are demonstrated in Fig. 30, the concentrations, cent, Erlenmeyer flasks. which the flasks sugar, upon sugar. In certain salt per- high longer burst. passed are rapidly so germination the osmotic value of the measure cm burst grains practically that the extent the 30. grains will 3 pollen shaken burst in however, the grains remain intact. According ing to sequence their (Fig. protective action, alkali salts rank in the follow- 31): Cs > Rb > Na, Fig. 31. K > Li. 39 The sequence, quite with respect to depression of the germination, is a different: Na > K In alkaline from that earth metals on the > of the Fig. germination this while the is sequence Ba > following action Mg Mg About the influence of T1N0 3, hexol-nitrate reported (Fig. upon 33). the > Rb. grains on (Fig. varies germination 32). 33- shown: > Sr the on Sr > Cs 32. Fig- In > the influence also, bursting Li Ca, stability of the grain exists: > Ba AgNOa stability, > > Ca. , Co(NH )6 CI 3 (luteoCl 3 ) and nothing 3 of importance can be 40 Fig. 34- Fig. 35- Fig. 36. 41 Fig- 37- Fig. 38. Fig- 39 42 Normal alcohols the be found and great and too Contrary stability show and § the 6. of sequences comparison ethyl- (Fig. 34). germination and have drafted the we only methyl- and Isoalcohols (Fig. 35) alcohols. The act curves then cloudiness increases. Butyl-alcohols picture of the development of this minimum Respiration. first at centrations, (Fig- measuring the influence of results respiration, upon salt, a not were at in divers con- tangible once 37)- To respiration measure the prepare 6 taining vessels usual series 3 of the the of the cm we of Warburg’s use test tubes Of this, liquid. central in 20 per cent, in the the results Fig. demonstrated in salt concentration lined up exerts a cm parallel toxic to action 3 the the x is usual 37 KOH is manner fairly (43). easy but the 1 3 cm vessel. Ultimately, explain. to the grains burst, consequently axis. In the passed pipetted into each were con- is introduced into pipette. a sucrose We (44). Immediately before the experiment, cups. Respiration is then measured In low 1 apparatus § 2), each of which (cf. Warburg apparatus with pollen suspension are small too maximum. subsequent When into as but fine a us concentration than normal minimum, a here, the standard of a to in osmotic concentration. act higher 36) give shown From this it would appear that curve. slightly (Fig. As concur. sugar be electrolytes, to ethyl-alcohol in though on propyl- and ethyl-alcohol will the other hand the distance between on will methyl-alcohol cane follow the Traubean rule, generally hand the distance between one curves high salt concentration the salt grains remaining intact, we obtain straight lines. The inclination will be indicative of the salt’s toxicity. To we compare with plot the one amount another the influence of the salts of 0 taken up in 2 rithm of the salt concentration. As sugar, the blank will But little It appears and AgN0 that 17) than grains only to in concentration This is 3 be is needed to on respiration, against the loga- grains burst in 20 per cent, keep the pollen grains intact (Fig. 33). AgNO a is much more toxic to germination (Fig. 16 respiration (Fig. 38). Alkali salts stabilize the pollen high they concentration exert the sequence of a (Fig. 39). (Fig. 31). depressing action activity Of the alkaline earth cations metals the minutes fairly low. K alkali too on In almost the same respiration (Fig. 38). found: > Na > Li. Mg behaves The other salts in some present measure a very like the different 43 the Here, picture. centration grains remain intact in while region, the fairly extensive a action depressing respiration on con- only concentration. As the curves are measured a higher days, the peaks must not be compared. Only from the manifests itself in different on position of the peaks that can similar closely are ascertain that Ba and Sr we in while strength, Ca actions exert exerts weaker in- a fluence. CHAPTER INFLUENCE OF THE VARIOUS COMPOUNDS BAKERS’ ON § III. YEAST. Introductory. 1. Before like entering upon examine to These on (4, of their It is When this should increase. occurs more share, influence of known on the C0 2 that saponin lipoids be can fermentation along on precipitated by he than found confirmed; cells that not were yeast cells Kolloid aufzufassen ist, und so mils Lipoid, sen die Salze zwar genau Plasmahaut verandern”. Lecithin S0 > Cl N0 > 4 > 3 From same this order he this than properties. In this while depression is lipoids; influence the to salts, on the greater of salts Hauptsache als hydrophiles salts following this series: stimulating action will decrease in might NaCl In a observed. apart from deduct that exerts a structure the on than influence metabolism; “Die den Stoffaustausch ein, da to the has to oblong form the BaCl2 a on stimulating considerably Boas, does but influence membrane, having the some mem- through which the influence noticeable. In alkali cations in alkaline earth cations. Lipoidhaut sie depressing action elliptical and the greater so). The action of saponin excites for electrolytes becomes und not strongly Saponin, according action a 2 mixture of saponin their has CaCl compounds individually structure. permeability so the these with greater clarity stark sein diirfte, der some die Plasmahaut bekannten lyotropen Reihen die precipitated by one will rein is in den the cells change from plasmic protoplasmic observed that and vacuoles disappear. smaller brane case wohl nach NaCl, which, however, is each of SCN. theory mixture of saponin fermentation while the > concludes (from stimulating action A J means treated with Also treated. (for example NaCl) stimulate fermentation. Moreover “da als the in- whole, the authors’ inside the protoplasmic membrane, permeability This, indeed, saponin liberate not others. by with dealing should we out findings. established the 5) gravimetrical lines. saponin. experiments, own carried the membrane. We do interpretation Boas our experiments important because they, too, are are fluence review of a number of a wirkt mbglicherweise demnach nicht zu this will on be Naturally, this regulatorisch auf jeder Zeit gleich sind damit mancherlei Regulationen des Stoffaustausches physikalisch-chemisch gegeben.” 44 A12(S0 4)3 exercises of A1 a and (S0 4 )3 2 depressing influence a saponin and mixture of saponin, NaCl of saponin and HC1 has a fermentation. In on C0 2 is liberated more 2 discovered (58) that fermentation of glucose. This he terin. When mentation in increased washed distilled this on to the Hermann specific action. a though not does, In sols put of In salts. down we shall As we have time. a experiments C0 2 this should we do only room get better a rate of to to for long too during one in a lecithin and obtain any not cholesterin with precipitate must yeast upon This substances numerous into insight measure a we the be would fer- upon of the structure . the influence of shall have to we — alcohol are to — carry shall, therefore, We are suitable not considerable a for or a method series at the the remainder out number of a have to measure error. 2 quantitative research, The research. Many other fermentation flask and disadvantage. On top of which allows research. methods a gauge methods alike planned with a view measuring Kluyver-Van to define the the amount yeast for to measuring marked are the yeast mixture there is respiration of the yeast The use liberated. Now, the apparatus consists Gravimetric and volumetric common we gravimetric method leaves 2 for compounds find fairly comprehensive time if day. preliminary of two separate parts; the C0 able an fermentation. measure measuring the volume of CO, this be referred not the membrane cholesterin. upon concentrations, us Einhorn tubes of air From depression liberated. them a cholesterin. specific speak in favour of their experiments. Defining either the final product glucose takes the views own used ill-defined not undertaken many different which will allow of exert permeability. the Measuring 2. had toxin a layer of the protoplasm. outer in we fer- found the for permeability of the cell, cholesterin plays the influence of measure mentation, our must the influence of saponin action an to have the increased explain If to the choles- specific part.) a opinion he is also opposed by cholesterin lecithin purified our not the the whole, on stimulate depressed by consequence of the membrane theory, influenced by cholesterin. co-zymase that In That the authors sols mixture direct a yeast juice is concludes be can with petroleum ether yeast fermentation. (According as a addition of cholesterin. preparations unaffected, though sensitivity stimulating action of important, § the As insulin some stimulating action water considerably. fermentation of The than less injurious action NaCl. Obviously, fermentationcan also be depressedby Hermann mixture a in A1 (S0 4) 3 alone. Also, than to Iterson amount activity take an has of sugar; it varying is not by layer active part apparatus under a in been suit- conditions. 45 Warburg’s apparatus for which As none will it be accommodate cannot this reason method (80) of these methods follow to necessary can neither are be suitable for rest will get be is filled with Our first apparatus partly put inside differences in fermentation thermostat. some 2. a to which are branching off new at the for paraffin the side and fermentation This gave necessitating could be (cf. Fig. 40) to the construction an impossible to obtain, due error immersed completely only was rise type from them, of in to a the during figures reproduced. Fig. 40. Fig. two factors factor is that of the yeast will settle The first long In this tube which have used fermentation tubes of this supersaturation the experiment, glass. temperature We tube measure time, but found it There little thermostat. a tube that could be 1. a measuring a this oil; if C0 2 is liberated, paraffin pushed through collected in a series used. fresh line of conduct. a method the yeast mixture is enclosed within the comprehensive a detrimental to results: with C02 will occur. during the experiment. of paired by introducing are yeast suspension 41. a This evil might be rephase into the liquid phase of the great consequence. gaseous 6 4 tube. This have tried we saturation with C0 with little it set in effect in to did 2 rings made of the when pipe a. A of Sambucus of error sources used by has us, fermentation tube. A several (a) tube is 2% is which has fermentation fitting b. in with provided long, cm tube is can be good grip closed with cm 3 In the ). diameter towards pushed moderately a a 50 thick a mm), tube, abt. tube. glass perforated, a 1.7 the exterior. rubber the on across centre paraffined The cork the rubber tube. A little C02 any glass eyelet. To stir the yeast suspension without a escaping, the stirrer wire is conducted through glass tube which by means of down than is cement. To three This 80 which mersed by in lities, a (Fig. toluol be placed taneous annular glasses Stirrer copper is a is vessel that As as collect the to a synchronous an eccentric. The influence demonstrated in Supersaturation by at im- 38.3° C. means at of two the time possible a can simul- Around the thermostat which we put the an measuring over the thermostat there is a be shifted up and down. The stirrers of the are 43. with C0 2 onto this ring. The latter is moved (driving also the thermostat stirrer) and hooked motor exerted Fig. of abt. completely constant heated it. onto paraffin. Suspended can fermentation tubes by on of the fer- fused capacity a 18 fermentation tubes constructed installation. ring that held The apparatus is many little further little hook. are the thermostat which makes is are tubes are a having the fermentation a centre (d) with provided copper examination of many media. table in the The temperature is 42). inside the tube keep wire regulator. Argand burners. narrow tube branches off the glass protuberances The end of the stirrer Thermostat. This tube reaches where the other little point tube. mentation tube, a glued inside the cork of the fermentation tube Kothinsky the fermentation d. removed when glass tube (c) is closed by fusing the bottom. A piece of lead is then introduced, after which the top is fused and Stirrer. provided with c. second component parts: (internal branched off through which the paraffin The top are did nor long, glass tube is closed straight by fusing its bottom (Fig. 41, capacity capillary provided nigra; in the fermentation tube is stirred. suspension The apparatus, No super- rods glass employed. Nevertheless, the objection would still be felt. Both the yeast used we marrow were stems different ways. two when occur by stirring At A will on the the stirrer set in liberation of installation is immediately upon C0 2 is stopped. this and the 47 Fig. 42. 48 curve will flatten opposed out. When stirring and the line will Fig. To demonstrate with experiment The the anew method different following mixtures of amounts are % yeast suspension 10 water now is added. The stirrer that the branch-tube paraffin. A of attained. we shall review an yeast. 5 cm 2 3 33 8 „ » d c e 3 3 cm 2 2 2 3J 10 it „ cm 3 I cm 2 35 12 » 3 33 „ poured into the fermentation tube and paraffin is then placed into the fermentation tube taking glass tube is filled with paraffin the fermentation little is suspension is added immediately before the experiment. The mixture is care 3 53 3 The yeast procedure b cm 2 curve prepared: . 30 % glucose original 43- a io (B) supersaturation will be steepen until the note tube we is put inside placed a 25 3 cm the up measuring glass is made of the time. We will then Fig. 44. to the cork. to Now under the collect the thermostat; measure at regular 49 intervals, five say every minutes, the As the do amount of indicate paraffin collected. the correct volume, measuring glasses exactly they will have to be graded in advance. These readings we corrected, using the data in This of This method the and will?not Let be a collected in is rate this be to the mically, t the as between = C — a log. G, Ca G this need io = K = this 3 3 cm and 3 20 to decreases. G, we must The denotes the cm ) divided by a and paraffin. amount (t ) required (G) 3 t-2o-io of paraffin. paraffin t 20-10- collect If we plot, 3 a cm want or . two and x time y to in the relation of simple amount time than one does to find not Here, relationship. the of yeast always needs take in would be an equal volume expected from relationship between the amounts of yeast To (46, 79). measure trolytes series on . the influence of elec- fermentation, of we experiments concentration of the carry out alternating electrolyte. Fig. 45- 4 , to logarith- that: . a the of cm by the It appears that yeast lapse ta cm a x. smallest a of stand respiration more When paraffin given volume of Co2 These now and In a a would result different liberate times it amounts a ordinary Thus, . 10 10 of yeast (Fig. 45). ta different the v that the time amount G against a X From O collect be lapse of time (i.e. a y to represented relationship t log. is V20-10 expected increase learn reckon with paraffin. the results. to time needed the a average It the series with passed between the reception of The we are to — collected each minute will average time a — the action result will be found. we with paraffin pre-saturated with C0 2 figures. Here, the solubility of C0 2 in paraffin detrimental denote t 2 in 44). defining series identical at dissolving of blanks Fig. same error, since to an C0 some series two another arrive will of the days, practically the numbers found (cf. When reproduce. might give rise eventuality comparing readily different on upon which possession, the time in minutes method will salt a our plotted against were not 50 The following different 14 KCl KCl I 3.5 n .35 n .035 KCl — 30 % 1 After 4 3 4 3 — — 2 4 5 2 2 2 add, with we shaking a 6 5 2 _ — 8 7 10 9 II 12 13 — tube Nr. put great too a 2 8 6 2 2 — twice, 2 4 — — — — 7 2 4 2 2 2 cm — 6 - — — — 2 — — 2 6 2 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 cent, 7 per the mixture is make the fermentation tubes face 10 another one tubes the yeast suspens- poured into the way. As not we to group A full minute. Half will be read, do moving ring, The first the full minutes, the half minutes. Also to of manner we (Fig. 46). timed are others reading same side of the one 2 8 placed in the thermostat in the on 6 6 3 is treated in the charge etc. a so takes place at pleted in that all the of numbers the bers Fig. a average rate amount of total KCI rate of curve upon describing fermentation of 10 2 or in this 3 of 20 cm 3 readings chart com- adjusting the potential the glasses, plotted against some of the KCI Here, this particular This the num- in the above is take the we the average dealing established with a for each relationship of these numbers with the is defined. (In this case the corresponding with the numbers 4 experiment.) way are (Fig. 48). Here, to. representing minute when one glucose alone blanks is taken, referred the influence of KCI paraffin). which the KCI concentration the 47 reproduced. are (v-2o, The percentages found in this the Fig. correspond with those collected in of fermentation in of to measuring found will be In the chart. for paraffin quantity average and 46. criterium After paraffin the time. curves As of amounts errors minutes. two the minute later group B of the fermentation tubes will be the 14 I pipette, 5 the tube fermentation tube which is to introduced into are n To tube want example, 6 n Water ion. (cm ), 2 6 .0035 Glucose for tubes: test Numbers KCl 3 mixtures plotted too, against the log. of the numbers are those 51 Fig. 47- Fig. 48. Fig. 49. 52 Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Fig. 52. 53 Fig. 53- Fig. 54- Fig. 55- 54 The § 3. The influence influence measured in the of of salts same fermentation. on various salts manner fermentation on KC1. Alkali salts all as of glucose exert is stimul- a This stimulating influence of the univalent cations ating action. (Fig. 49) diminishes in the series: NH > Na >K 4 the earth cations Ca does not following act Li, being > stimulating in for the Sr low as salts heavy metals, in action pressing (Fig. 52) measured a study of do not in have the other of a n. .04 mentation Other salt a curve curve has gets lined up Boas increases salts show a were these the same, high they as a this been From action. stimulating hydrogen ions they becomes depression we concen- have must are con- exceed not influence fer- on increases. remarkable (Fig. 53, 54 and 55). curves low comparatively no influence, parallel a concentration. the parts of the (4, x at much higher This are concen- which at varies for each axis, curves the 5) until second time. This level, to salt. the Also different. action stimulating of the anions the series: employed similar Br in these behaviour < < 3 While the influence of Th addition of NaCl (Fig. Cl < S04 . measurings (Fig. 56). (Fig. no the de- a of toxicity times . increasingly depressing CNS < K the 2 acid reaction; very drop observed in a very will the initial and last As 50); definite level is reached. A further increase of the concentration tration, the 10.000 exerts influence upon fermentation until an in occurs U0 much as the same, Below p H 3, has salts exhibit Depression already The $1). Th < < For salts. concentration continues until earlier, literature it appears that the depressing TINO.j as (Fig. Hg < observe we (N0 3)2 has Be spicuous. to been examined in not high concentration. abt. Ag alkali existing the exert concentration that is referred (Fig. observe the series; Cu < RbCl and CsCl a we > Ca. > Ba fermentation on in increases tration Mg case action: stimulating > that of the salts as lyotropic series. In alkaline somewhat weaker low concentration. In this sequence A group of the normal a action is Cl < salts, too, so 4 . (NOs )4 practically 58), Mn 57): we do does observe a not change clearly on defined 55 Fig. 56. Fig. 58. Fig. 60. Fig- Fig. 57- 59- Fig. 61. 56 between Ni antagonism of NaCl is The § 4. On that, (.53 needed influence fermentation to a of the that, here, compounds on influence state the cause organic compounds. normal alcohols we of alcohols on yeast and acetone > 5.0 According occurs in to juice. „ .23 ,, 62. Fig. 63. their observations, in these concentrations by to Fig. 63 where a us that there is little direct action the action of The volume of yeast doubt that some cells so we must closely attribute fermentation. on structure becomes clearly manifest phenols is demonstrated. in salt (4) observes that the yeast cells lose mixture of precipitation juice. These concentrations approximate yeast influence an They further ,, .54 The influence of the molecular assume no „ 1.3 isoamyl-alcohol the values found Boas of these (98) established yeast isobutyl-alcohol Fig. a action 60) it is mol. 3.5 propyl-alcohol n. in However, occurs: ethyl-alcohol § 5. an Warburg and Wiesel Methyl-alcohol in with (Fig. action an exert the Traubean rule. concerned are permeability. amount shift. to curve having found the following concentrations in which fermentation this 59). A fair 3 to certain extent, follows improbable the (N0 )2 and NaCl (Fig. n) solutions. their natural appearance saponin and NaCl. Vacuoles disappear and the cells oblong shape. This he puts down action of saponin, gets an opportunity to to the salt that, by the invade the cell. We observe 57 identical Th changes (N0 3 )4 invasion is It the the on (N0 3 )2 and U0 2 addition of Here, again, . CuCl AgNO s 2, we HgCl , 2, may be faced with an of the cations. also other osmotic interesting very salts in high phenomenon, ascertain to concentration or An not. whether should answer the influence of be regarded these to as an questions is by measuring the volume of yeast cells in different salt furnished concentrations. For 20 these 3 cm measurings These tubes tubes with a capacity of abt. use little tapered towards the bottom to a graded we are . piece of abt. 3 vate 10 cm 3 cent, per In solutions 2 then be necessary this we some ten deposits, It U0 2 would cells (La(N0 )3 to measure now that appear exceptions to this and Th (N0 )4 on 3 indeed be so as to arrive practically are . 2, Pb (N0 3) 2, uniformly. It will immediately. ). The long and the short axes .1 n the five all the volume. As at salts completely: It is a in blank. of the salts diminish the and 1 (Fig. n AgN0 3 to 64 and that, in low probable that the cells. With respect found in becomes noticeable. being for account influence an on , CuCL, these salts 65). concen- HgCL 2 , exert a other salts, the second osmotic influence 65 few we 1) We are apparatus on upon measuras volume. have sketched examples of phenomenon. again measured are volThis the fact fermentation has been their the fermentation (All salts whose influence a 3, settle of concentration region would Fig. 3 not of the fermentation lines where the influence upon ed, CuCl Ce(N0 ) , x (6) between fermentation depress 3 very this 3 cm the volume of the yeast the volume of yeast cells measured are direct, toxic action ume coacer- solution and 8 compare the numbers obtained with (N0 )2 curve will to measure salt cm days two (N0 3) 2) yeast does volume in concentrations tration, After Box’s apparatus use we The sole 7 pass 3 Th (N0 3)4 and U0 of often used are 3 we measured. few salt a suspension. yeast is deposite For tubes (similar volumes). Into the tubes of to In but salts; those Fig. 64. extremely grateful to Professor Box for lending us his measuring and for demonstrating to us its use. % 58 not charted § 6. are found in Respiration will have to 65. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. exactly the same region of concentration.) of yeast. When the volume of get smaller. Fig. a Respiration, yeast cell diminishes, which is regarded follow this decrease. We, for us, as are its a surface, surface (Ni(N0 3) 2 behaves respiration. like this) will exert will concerned with the problem whether salts that bring down fermentation level too, catalysis, a to similar a definite action on 59 In number of a and glucose vessels 8 3 transferred from the ration of the mixtures It would now Respiration curve is No than more addition of is But CuCl2 has a fermentation and centration tube 5 test Subsequently, cm 2 cm 3 3 3 respi- 3 different from that exerted 2 ferment- on region where the volume in the depression of respiration is a do observe we 2 NaCl or cm (Fig. 66) that the action exerted by Ni(N0 ) Ni(N0 ) KQ pipette. 2 each vessel upon which to only depressed 3 adding into each of the Warburg as decline. to seen a soon be measured. materially ation. tubes As pass of means test will appear is respiration on we mixtures preparing are solution. with KOH, suspension (2 %) by yeast are we Ni(N0 3) 2 provided are tubes test cm (Fig. a to occur on action the when 67). powerful action; here, the volume seen stimulating found are of curves in practically the respiration, same con- region. CHAPTER IV. GENERAL CONCLUSION. § of In the substance a give rise to can can be act which the structure derived. upon a cell in two different manners: change in the membrane. a The influence upon 2. from experiments membrane general, It may 1. the Selecting 1. an internal system of the cell manifest may itself. Though, also in with action I, § 2), ter a an the shall not these practical Lathyrus pollen is variations in the interpretation the to cause There is able, a use not least in the that we a shall very suitable germination of the future, near of these variations. relationship further For Chapto of these internal systems. in the solution of select our object. giains (Fig. the Firstly, 9 and the present we give It is experiments membrane problem. the great 10) make such can between the weather and to fathom only point germination. relationship between the colour, the specific weight germination. Pollen, showing with at nature faced be may difficult. Further research would be needed the apparent and be grounds which may be of some; we complex and symplex relations (cf. interpretation of the correct on we the last-mentioned instance, upon difficulty; it is coloured a great specific weight, germinates orange. Pollen that germinates readily 60 has of yellow colom a in water the As the is fluence of spectrum of impossible in study of our an we object, be This, only of the measure on the in- germination shows directly likened results shall be we amount action injurious an can for the time of the The weight. part. exert n), cannot interpretation an not Fig. which biocolloid. a does (cf. specific active an Now, depression of the salts sequence small a play pH limited few salts. a but may where region germination, and grains being a the ionic least, renders at obtained. permitted to Only when, experiment with to various salts, can we eventually arrive at important conclusions. Hydrochloric amines behave as salts, though the influence of the readily felt (cf. carbon chain will be reversal L. as sequence of the Teunissen-Van the cation lengthens, character while the concentration The sequence, exhibited of germination, brane upon same the established derive to assumes of a more the reversal of at hydrophobe charge decreases. by neutral salts with tegard be directly likened some from to to a depres- ionic spectrum an the behaviour of conclusions with respect the salts the to we mem- With a view to the stabilizing action of these salts grains it becomes evident that the influence on the membe must germination salts pollen organic substances the action we can consider complex the electric the direction the upon on re the condition), For at inside the in Lathyrus hydrophobe All of the part practically all between the of the substances along § two 2 we seem shall observe different lines bursting of pollen grains give of the membranes in various stability of curves germination and those representing (when reading be arrived can depressing eventuality relations foretell the relationship the influence Measurings of the act of normal alcohols. same depression mainly alter influence they when however, must (i.e. they influence symplex relations). representing in the we internal system. an compounds organic membrane on salts, electrolytes (i.e. factor; important an with alkali acting Whereas membrane a who structure. the brane these cannot Nevertheless, biocolloid. a shall be able (94) charge of biocolloids with the aid of amines. When the carbon chain sion of Fig. 20). We observe the Zijp of some to work that this conduct). impression surroundings. This is problem much less complex than germination; when the substan- ces, whose influence osmotic bursting quantity, we phenomenon we are shall about have directly to to to measure, ascribe changes are their not action within the present in upon the membrane itself. What holds applies good for the influence of electrolytes equally to the action on respiration: on germination the number of salts 61 we actually can of the results. will burst alcohol curves respiration for BaCl blank) burst after to almost flatten serve the more rapidly. we On adding 5 m. 10 in mol. longer since the respiration action (30 section from the (blank) 68), in amyl-alcohol; 20 mol. m. Whereas they the Lathyrus pollen yeast one When we grains may influence of m. curve under mol. sugar cause the curve ob- we though this will set remain grains same (i.e. the amyl-alcohol, n. amyl- in intact 68. is almost to In straight. This behave just action the is as In respiration. higher exerts are had we 20 per accelerated grains a con- toxic much in expected cent 5 m. sugar mol. while in firmer will remain intact. can of electrolytes be ascertained in but investigate concentration review, there are 5 a the action of which shows 2, a cent, ultimately, will m. n. about the examining the bursting of the grains (top mol. influence Be(N0 3) established in per amyl-alcohol find them burst. 10 20 respiration expetiments regarding the observe straight line but, here, alcohol a mol.). m. Fig. see shall we little while. This, a out. In we interpretation an the influence of measure 68), Fig. centration allow of to 37). Grains in (Fig. 2 If (Fig. phenomenon same small too problem is aggravated by the fact that the grains in many media. on as is measure Our as that high a as must not on few the single numerous very abt. germination salts. Even acid reaction, .04 n. of cases, in bakers’ may the be Out of 30 cations be used since they are toxic 62 in low concentration (Ag, Cu, Hg, UO and inside this influence is the membrane; internal system. being action an in .6 living and Th(N0 ) internal system. any juice and that do To that again, be put the on some not and we down living in part in change a to to make Th(N0 )4 when 3 that where to this AgN0 give CuCl, we should exclude from internal § 2. 1. 2. The some an one yeast living cells though they interpretation this being membrane protoplasmic pollen there are further indication The influence of The on set reason our 3 )2 findings. concentration same cells a of induces U02(N0 , in. Here, too, the more why the five metals acting upon systems. In Lathyrus give on organic an its action CuCl,, HgCl 2 3, experiments our action an connexion it should be in the volume of the in low concentration, acts yeast changes to us, the volume of the yeast cells upon trying changes by of the upon the membrane, to Respiration of yeast cells is influenced in the as action (78). preparations of the salts use In upon the act acetone permeability this be faced with may yeast. antiseptics influence yeast not does 58) the action upon decide whether the influence of The influence of salts us naturally, active examine this substance both with respect observed (Fig. demonstrate that the attribute the results, established we must not must 30 it would appear NaCl 4 concentration as Since, yeast. take cannot substance should some the fermentation of yeast juice and on in the membrane. Once an eq. much influence upon the volume of exert becomes felt in almost similar juice, an upon CuCl, after discussion. to fermentation of change invade the yeast to From these considerations Experiments by Warburg and Wiesel (98) membrane be can a exerted m. time some 3 influence of alcohols yeast as to decrease after suddenly needs between antagonism lend itself not salts also (Fig. 65). the yeast cells that the the salt Apparently, cell. These five by caused first, will at far due, in the first place, Respiration of yeast cells fairly great minutes. is it not As Th). a ascertained, as two to of Lathyrus groups of the organic compounds that may of the membrane: structure on pollen. experiments germination of the grains. stability of the grains in different media. To what extent do these bear experiments out the membrane theory? To answer of the may we inside this question we phenomena occurring assume the cell the and shall have to form some sort of opinion during germination. In the first place existence outside it, of a variation in essential to osmotic germination. pressure When the 63 osmotic pressure outside the cell is low, When it rapidly. In between these cent, per We in each the two there is region a takes grains pollen grains will burst In place. germinate not of at concentration this experiments our all. where is concentration. sugar If this were substance the the representing the grains will imagine this mechanism cannot germination. 1. high, too of the germination a 20 is be the to only controlling one then: so, bursting germination and those representing curves of phenomenon the would grains coincide. the 2. curves of all substances coefficient) It is evident consideration. (allowance being made for the isotonic would coincide in that this The does principle. occur not germination in the and curves bursting of the grains coincide, practically, in but In most depression of germination electrolytes tration lower than that in which the holds representing few a single in occurs the cases. concen- grains remain intact. The reverse good for alcohols; here, grains germinate in spite of their being When substances intact. may under experiments those be expected lie to toxic, are naturally, the germination in front of the curve governing curve the intact grains. The be cannot The in the reverse phenomenon, occurring in organic substances, explained from the standpoint of osmotic pressure alone. curves of all substances region of the of the substance would be found of cane Hence, on lie to sugar, cause cannot not for This leads us to a different be curve a toxic which, curve. activity naturally, The behaviour germination in higher concentration explained occurring suffice principle, namely only from this hypothesis. in osmotic pressure within the cell to explain the effect of many compounds to be seen which mechanism is actually germination. to our next surmise which is absolutely hypothetical character: A certain substance within the cell (possibly towards plasmic membrane. The that changes when in the cell there exists a the a growth substance) permeates from flanking cell It, thus, many wall distinct (in this case through the protopollen tube demands the intine) occur. difference between osmotic becomes evident that different wall formation of the very inside the cell and outside it, will the i. coincide in And here, too, in front of the sugar germination. It’remains responsible ought curve. depressing differences and outside it do in might methyl-alcohol, than sugar grain be allowed germination may be to germinate. depressed in ways: by substances acting on an Only pressure internal system of the cell; 6 4 in 2. is essential liquid; germination, to checked. The first this of the outside permeation of the substance, being Hence, strong concentration excessivily an because 3. methods of two shall be we allows the depression have already been reviewed. concerned with the third method since mostly membrane protoplasmic to assume controlling a activity. from Firstly, better some We may freely described experiments about this of the stability take the we the knowledge assume sugar concentrations grains that sugar must we membrane. in different hardly that leave the As enters alcohols (Fig. the cell. Hence, the osmotic grains intact, of these sugar solutions will be the factor wall of the certain firmness, the intact pollen grain has a nation is not This makes it depressed until occurring in in value grains will remain yet, attained as possible higher a 34). As the deciding stability. though osmotic pressure outside has not, even the value of the inside pressure. obtain to try starting-point a that germi- concen- sugar tration. There three are alcohols: alcohol that stabilize This would the mean membrane, the that these alcohols becoming this alcohol show a than there is of sugar with This action). In different oleate reminds that the faintly or action of alcohols In the A some an butyl-alcohols as an in we shall be grows entering so a excessive membrane, This faced opening coacervates. must a slightly This be either from the sensitized to which curves (cf. we be Fig. 36). system succeeded is a shrinking all of the play by a the will condensing action an opening action. Eventually, we grains longer burst. no felt explained along butyl-alcohol pressure outside the in is indicative of the fact relations be coacervates. where osmotic electrolytes may Tert. shall observe that the latter will symplex an exerts pollen This results found in soap region The influence of centration. is first required are opening influence. an Lathyrus strongly example. At first, minimum we upon influence. observe us Here, phosphatide at have sugar. methyl- and symplex relations (i.e. it will a opening grains remain intact) similar the membrane of alcohols; Ethyl- More of these alcohols is non-sensitized system. exercise firm. propyl-alcohol theory forwarded by serve (the a amyl- n. condensing action a of the soap and n. shrinking action though later suggests and butyl- keep the grains intact. us coacervates n. exert more picture. to neutralizing action of a propyl-, n. grains in lower concentration than comparatively that, in principal this low con- protoplasmic part. (It should 65 be observed electric reverse part predominates effect to that in the change.) a Also the great We conclude that this finally in more common the direction of for points in the pH ioo) grains a are Jong de representative of that is found in the KC1 and less CaCl Though the be regarded on the this in i.e.p., as hypothesis, the too, of pure 7. The strong H same direction a with Lathyrus that theory the complex system, (cf. we lecithin Fig. may indeed shown assume well by an as exert 21). every some Basing ourselves a be membrane should that, in low sugar KC1 will will 70. hope having shed of this membrane model. as lecithin pollen do not, in protoplasmic we pure antagonism between Fig. experiments our potentialities are 15, charge with CaCl2 than 69. (15 per cent.), CaCIj We 14, number of uni-complex of lecithin (Bonner) the reversal of The pure. points 2 evince at neighbourhood of p Fig. way, a (Winkler). protein lower concentration lecithin developed (Bonner, mainly of lecithin. This is confirmed by the fact that a have Jong and Bonner’s model The pn region, where that the membrane consists (6 —7), designates germinate tri-complex can de The three membrane models potential models, ranging from with membrane will protoplasmic Bungenberg Saubert, 30, 31, Winkler, has the electrolyte will be needed sensitivity with Bungenberg than with that of Winkler. under a membrane in which a — direction. same to case much of the — light upon concentration stabilizing influence. experimental series that KC1 and CaCl2 , given concentration, increase the percentual germination in 15 % will exert a more powerful action sugar (Fig. 69). Naturally, CaCl2 in a than KC1. Since we imagine methyl-alcohol, methyl-alcohol we an osmotic action expect to that, in low will be needed to be the sugar principal agent in concentration, depress germination. much This indeed 5 66 be to appears Less (Fig. 70). so methyl-alcohol is needed germination in high sugar concentration than in The § 3. membrane of protoplasmic Contrary the to As problem. the influence of alcohols changes we As in pollen, our phenomena first effort in occurring important in the solution of with the proteins the exterior, the cell. meation of opinion, our glucose Ni(N0 ) 3 bear out 2 so far as exposing they are chiefly concerned are permeate towards cannot (glucose) must it highly probable seems be can they as either presumption permeate into- necessarily depressed that this stimulated or per- by an difference between the influence vast respiration and that exerted on this problem. We our action upon the membrane. The of in the approach to directed toward fermentation, moreover, the substrate In have to with experiments permeation of a substance takes place, actively engaged in the formation of hexose are (77), and, phosphates shall be attributed whether question As not. or yeast. be not may discard any must organic substances. Consequently, we shall problem from an entirely different angle. the sugar. Lathyrus pollen, here the eximportant in solving the membrane are in the membrane, baker’s depress to cent, per with experiments periments with electrolytes 20 permeation on seems to (Fig. 66). When reviewing the fermentation curves occurring in salts that depress fermentation to a certain percentage of the blank (Fig. 53, 54 and 55) we are It suggests faced with a Once the yeast is saturated, influence. part that is conspicuously horizontal. saturation of yeast with the salt in low concentration. a Ultimately, a further addition of salt in osmotic will exert concentration fermentation no will decrease. If the yeast be existence of concentration, actually saturated with the at (Naturally, this saturation.) If the concentration, the AgNO suspensions. In a ation our g As concentration we then we of a a is different concentration of graph are In Fig. we use indeed observe a will solution. the point of with respect curve when to altering and 7 per cent, substance that is active yeast in low be observed. caused 4 per salt 71 the influence of both cent, normal the actual presumably experiments shall curve 1 the the beyond different a a the considerable compared with 5 per of fact, in assume taken in and might we of extend not bound be shall observe matter salt, quantity equilibrium, does strength of the yeast suspension. KC1 and In point assumption amount a between the equilibrium an cent, fresh KC1 by an curves glucose. curve, in the ferment- osmotic If we shifted phenomenon. raise this to 12, conspicuously 67 to the left. effect Strengthening the sugar concentration, however, has little upon the AgN0 3 amount of cation bound is brium concentration. This is differences, resulting from a only be watched in salts acting in can low concentration. With respect the The curve. varying yeast concentration, to salts small acting in high concentration compared with the equiliclearly demonstrated by Fig. 72. Only as acting in low concentration may we observe a fresh curve altering the yeast concentration; in the “toxic” metals Ag and in salts when Cu variations greater than in are non Fig. 71. Fig. 72. toxic metals From these observations it would appear that cations our has been replaced by starting-point, of, for example, another. the Ca therein Ni(N0 3 ) 2, the Ca can Taking be one a (e.g. Ni). of the membrane Ca replaced. tri-complex tri-complex will slowly pass The latter is denser than the Ca Ni tri-complex (cf. Fig. 54). plex; both permeability and fermentation decrease. As a has been completely replaced by Ni, as On the addition fermentation soon will into com- as Ca remain 68 to Our zero. KC1 (cf. membrane. Ca may be K may At all times as strong number to be Mazia arrives It is very able is as the Mazia’s want be directly only rate be bound. substitute to Na approximately is In a Mg this required. conclusions: Ca forms compound organic substances showing little mobility. likely that Ca regarded we must Of Ba and Sr less 20. following of of Ca will that of the latter substance. as is enclosed within this substance where it to This groups If very weak not its solutions; amount concentration roughly the at itself is binding equal an the Ca from expel notably from more, The by other cations. their Ca, hundred times with the acid the increase. cannot 2 replaced ought in permeable than the more the concentration of CaCl for ions water once solutions. 2 it. add we the Ca be effected with the aid of K citrate. can be taken in CaCl to on for similar a with distilled rinsing proportional or with us This, however, mol.) depends reduced Mazia example. (75) binding of Ca through the protoplasm of Elodea. Even Afterwards, Ca (.00005 substituted fermentation will Here, presents established the protoplasm. is tri-complex will be but the K fortnight’s K Even then, 48). Literature a be picture will be quite different if, for example, Fig. membrane, original concentration fermentation will In osmotic stationary. outer be can a a membrane imperme- readily replaced by other ions. layer of the protoplasm. fit quite well into our train of thought. What he calls “a compound of Ca with organic substances Obviously, experiments having little mobility”, in our opinion should be referred complex system. Especially the ready exchangeability points in this substantiated Boas’ direction. from our concurrence with subsequently, things, this 2 less salts this a pressing action, will in will to (condensing) mixture a is agent. Since of A12 (S0 4) 3 more be (9). likewise are action on the permeable. In of the salt which, system active, Ba a (amongst membrane from the acting independently, saponin and a further reduction of the volume). distinguished The salt, an exerts latter penetration a be less salt. action. the internal an be observed from reverse a obtain upon might foregoing pages, Saponin makes as exercises an other With being previous is a de- opening saponin greater fermentation occur. It should cation to act we phenomenon permeable by that NaCl will may in the to standpoint. membrane cholesterin hypothesis our with radio-active substances by experimenting experiments, referred explainable BaCI Perhaps to of the cations be possible to replace depressing fermentation, establish the influence of the Ca upon which it a cation in the ought exerting a membrane be by a equally easy stimulating action. to 69 of yeast Seven grams On the Now, we coincides the influence of KC1 with will yeast” The maximum that be by least in part, at With like tri-complex this KC1, resulting of non-treated Mn. This when that Mn This (Fig. KC1 raises yeast; between similar to high valency a low has a antagonism stronger results will than the models If were be less favourable, as Fig. Ni(NO )2 .2 a we have has pointed influence an been complex to the great powerful this influence than An anion with one possessing K SG observed; be may 2 shows 4 forces in the electric a KC1. our membrane. Here, contraty (Bonner). with importance opinion, In seems the series of less Lathyrus, to constituted are part of the sen- potential §) the protoplasmic membrane of yeast closely the tri-complex (Winkler) than the that govern the situation cells occurs pre-treated antagonism of the ions. erythrocyte more K demonstrates that in 76 m.eq., yeast which by the (cf. previous proximates a peat experiment concerning the antag- The membrane of the yeast cell, in sitized ferment- 75). an and KC1. than on observe we treated yeast. non 2 too, Mn, way more Here, valency. in for (Fig. in the valency a K blank . of the anion depressing action replaced,, fermentation above Ni(N0 )2 In Chapter I, § 3, 3 a of this explanation same concentration of that shown action of KC1 in the Ni(N0 ) 3 constant The 3 cm the normal under lie to too (Fig. 73). this yeast on n. is twice 74). Ni yeast is affected closely with corresponds onism a MnCL2 .6 in the membrane has been exerts occurring 2, die in this substance as 3 stimulating yeast. substituting with CuCl experiment found from the phenomenon is obvious. The Ca ation. cm too Later the yeast is shaken with centrifuged. measure The blank of “Mn blank. day in a morning of the day of observation the suspension diluted and then water. left for are the chief apuni- factors by complex relations (the membrane). We have been able not investigate the symplex relations in this membrane. This is due to a to phenomenon of the process particular Here, the action of alcohols much we sooner wish refer to the investigates alcohols. until in less than It Evidently, where of the to action the appears an that carried of invertase latter do In this respect by Kisch (68). He out the addition of various on not influence this process high concentration and this, again, suggests a membrane. our model offers an explanation protoplasmic membrane. We wish our becomes evident the membrane. upon the under consideration. internal system experiment exosmosis exceedingly sensitized of the an on membrane model may be to cite of many a few properties more examples instrumental in the solution permeability problem. Thus, the glomerulus membrane (54) 70 Fig. Fig. 73- 74- Fig. Fig. 76. 75- 71 is impermeable glucose only in to definite Ca a the Ca concentration is either stronger will pass looking be a this at Certain plants In red the large according of Magistris organic check to to When case. membrane to far as go dyes as the destroys treatment phenomenon. On the other in KC1 solution, occur (i n.) gives rise 2 placed in distilled are partly built up from lipoids. check this dye-stuffs will the to some to in even exosmosis; i n. this, hypertonic haemolysis (too). (72), in amplifying Hansteen-Cranner’s experiments, the factors that define the exosmosis of from phosphorus stimulate this plant organic cells. Also P while liberation. He finds though of the membrane. The Ca 2 a to appears less to extent, the action of CaCl2 in KCI. not anorganic and CaCl here, KC1 and, 2 conception this may this is know, irreversible in distilled water, can they Evidently, we required the exosmosis of MgCl in this expect this example, views, may be likened to our erythrocytes gets down as of CaCl amount we when lipoids for cells. membrane which, hand exosmosis of important system. secrete But little CaCl2 is A standpoint, our beetroot, from permeating cell from unstable very water. will be very pH, too, through. concentration. As weaker, part of the glucose or to This confirms be our taken in only be exchanged for another cation, by the membrane example K. for The practical work was carried out in the laboratory of medical chemistry of the Government University at Leyden. I am greatly indebted to who given has its Director, Professor me the Dr. ungrudging H. help G. Bungenberg of his Jong de and expert advice valuable criticisms. SUMMARY. As as to the teresting the forms present The of part cells of the etc. for satisfactorily a layer protoplasm the suggest that though by itself, the membrane this being layer, properties. of protoplasmic membrane developed explain but part of the facts. They concur permeability compounds, explained in- facts which stands different doubt would be On the contrary, permeability theories, Since many not will possess can Numerous structure. of the models numerous one theory, its no it membrane, protoplasmic protoplasm. the surface, (47, 60, 70,74, 81, 82) with a membrane is protoplasmic quite independent on of investigate to actually of Chambers and Reznikoff leave experiments the existence from the sieve of different investigated a single theory, the lipoid plant previously, theoretic and animal cannot standpoint, we be shall 72 have look for to To Bungenberg this to the distinguished. by the attraction In the other, forces Firstly, in the membrane medium, shall of life. We caused by the addition now the influence exerted (if gives we us some discard the in system We bakers’ compounds 20 As per sensitive is this of amount with the in cell particles the contacts many processes process, compounds, with membrane models. on of the membrane upon internal an the burst Also (Lathyrus influence and pollen of different processes. is pollen in depressed distilled shall we the During Lathyrus; in region, two our pollen where we a When be to exerts pn summers the we to a amount of Ca w ; ll readily an has difference summer is borne active an in since out the part behaviour by on We of the antagonism takes a may anticipate alkaline earth a less metals in- the marked in either less active part here. This, indeed, the facts. Organic substances exerted in this. the cause important variations in the alkali salts since the antagonism of ions in- have varying electrolyte in the membrane in either year. Even in the relative very no sequence of attribute of constant experiments. find year This different sub- by water, successive either presented great variations. appreciable difference the note biological a nature objects particular of salts, (6—7). however, compound acting a the membrane). in to the will have to be used in all action. limited to as As we cannot between the affect substances same of their life the influence experimented alkali salts more membrane. we the may vary. The proto- too, changes alter may molecules, can, where different two grains choose to fluence, the to Lathyrus cent, sucrose measuring by the some Germination of stances. the Waals der given object, the medium of various to eventuality of and on We region compare examined yeast) the the membrane will information preference have within changes. the being governed part (complex relations). substances When the interval inside change a membranes London-Van various changes, permeability, membrane plasmic of answer leading part. relationship these measure ready of these greater thickness than a few no of these changes. outcome This that direction a electric an the membrane in any the fact complex and symplex membrane has the the play study to of use immediately section hydrophobe, (symplex relations) make is between the ionized groups When wanting can different parts there the 100) present 15, 30, 31, theories. permeability under developed entirely Two all of the comprising models Jong (14, de question. be can model a mind our lipophile come up to coacervates. our expectations of the influence There will be analogy between a 73 series of activity organic compounds, placed oleate on (with the exception Pollen influence an even Also alcohols of will grains value of the show this surroundings cane that be observed in may conclusion sensitized If in all at it relations are opinion, the Jong be 1. stabilize not this From it the would grains appear opening action while propyl-, exert an A similar This coacervates. clear active protoplasmic and membrane a developed. new also phenomenon leads must to us be either salts that membrane, relations. complex (a uni-complex the non- Lathyrus developed method of pollen by in our conforms Bungenberg of the measuring we have rate of fermentation experimented with, may three groups: depress fermentation completely symplex Hence, lecithin). glucose by bakers’ yeast in different The many salts, divided into roughly this membrane of the fermentation of trace in that, than the membrane model to Bonner surroundings, was grains Comparing them with weakly sensitized. becomes more pre-eminently To sugar cane high osmotic great sensitivity for electrolytes and variations antagonism of the ions and the influence of organic the strong compounds, de but or do reached. the consider its we pii, oleate exert for the fact that shrinking agents. are salts too, Since assume responsible protoplasmic that this action. may ethyl-alcohol methyl- and ethyl-alcohol butyl- and amyl-alcohol diminishing germination (the grains remaining intact). concentration. concentration is higher we Here, media. stabilizing be to sugar and methyl- sugar, until high depressing variations). in low concentration will in series in certain hardly permeates into the cells, remain intact the order of their n a minor some burst i and coacervates, in low concentration (Ag, Cu, Hg, U0 2 and Th); 2. initially lower fermentation salts that blank. tration They do is not increased. exert to a given percentage of the further influence Ultimately, abt. at i when the n., these concen- salts depress fermentation completely (Tl, Be, Zn, Cd, Pb, Mn, Ni, 3. salts Co, Al, Fe - • •, La and diminish The first (These Ce); that stimulate fermentation, in low concentration. Later, will Fe' *, those that or about exert no influence fermentation will n., again (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, NH4 Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, luteo and hexol). at 1 , group salts of salts, it appears, acts have great influence also upon on the an internal system. volume of the yeast cells.) The influence exerted by the second and third groups of salts can be traced membrane to back be a to Ca one and the tri-complex. replaced by another cation. In the same principle. Now, if one case we add the We a assume our salt, Ca will be tri-complex formed 74 (for example membrane. Ni a In tri-complex) will be less permeable than the original other which to In been added. the other faced with Upon retarded in re- K a tri- the membrane gets concentration of abt. a volume of the cells; we are phenomenon. salts respiration is process osmotic an (e.g. case be stimulated since parallel with the diminishing runs fermented glucose might be fermented by yeast permeable. Decreased fermentation in more n. has of amount that amount fermentation will complex) i salt no the words, presents but part of the have quite a influence. different concentration which is a This practically identical that in which volume decreases. to Alcohols discard wanting In presumably the arrive to this results upon conclusions at an with and Ca these hence we must when compounds regarding the membrane. membrane This model will be lecithin, protein internal system, experiments protoplasmic dominant part. are act of relations complex a play a pre- tri-complex whose components (Winkler’s model), possibly accompanied by substances which intensify the symplex relations (“sensitizers”). We look must Bungenberg extensive series upon of the and his Jong de membrane collaborators This potentialities. models as series mere ranges from to (Winkler). these component of systems Every the construed from one few a a of the structure in These data. single which the membrane is models with reconcile, show It expected various be cannot would become necessary those on to biological be active. to distinct following the another, one lecithin be varied. may membrane protoplasmic investigate the influence of numerous compounds processes a tri-complex of lecithin, protein and Ca uni-complex (Bonner) Evidently, developed by examples of an advantages: permeability they theories, and, alike, they will allow the differences in the permeability of organisms and organs ponents. to Our be attributed great lack of to variations of knowledge properties of the membrane components we can no existing among problems, in the The for than at protoplasmic example least for the accounts most remarkable sugars the present, for the fact important membranes of the very com- physico-chemical various that differences cells. differences Minor occurring through glomerulus membrane, be solved. general importance of complex systems, possessing, amongst lipophile components, is clearly shown by the cir- things, cumstance that two the series of different objects like Lathyrus pollen protoplasmic membranes that can be included vastly and bakers’ yeast have in construe permeation of isomeric cannot, other more the membrane about the potential models without great difficulty. 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