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NEW ZEALAND’S MOST COMPREHENSIVE AND UP-TO-DATE LEVEL 2 BIOLOGY REVISION GUIDE ONLY $12 INCLUDING GST CONDITIONS APPLY KEY NOTES WALK-THROUGHS HINTS TIPS 4 YEARS OF NCEA EXAMS 108 PAGES A4 FORMAT 2015 EDITIONS OUT NOW! CHLOROPLASTS • Chloroplasts are found inside the cells of green plants and algae. • They are abundant in cells located near the top of the leaves in plants. • They contain the molecule chlorophyll that absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis. • Their structure maximises the rate at which photosynthesis can occur: - Thin semi-permeable membrane allows light to penetrate. - Thylakoids are flat and disc-shaped to increase the surface area for the absorption of light. - Grana are flat, compact piles of thylakoids. - Grana are connected to each other by tubes called lamellae. - Lamellae are suspended in a watery, transparent matrix, called the stroma. Chloroplasts are located near the plasma membrane in cells so that the distance raw materials (CO2 and H2O) have to diffuse is short. PHOTOSYNTHESIS The process of photosynthesis can be written as a simplified equation: Carbon dioxide + Water Sunlight Chlorophyll Glucose + Oxygen Every topic a student is expected to know The actual process is complex and involves a number of reactions. These reactions can be divided into two main is summarised, helpful hints included steps - the light dependent phase are and the light independent phase. and key concepts are reinforced. Worked LIGHT-DEPENDENT PHASE LIGHT-INDEPENDENT PHASE examples guide and provide exemplars • Occurs in thylakoids. • Occurs in stroma. • Chlorophyll for your students.uses energy from light to split water • Enzymes join CO to a 5-carbon molecule to 2 (H2O). • Hydrogen (H) from this splitting is transferred to NADP+ to make NADPH and an enzyme produces ATP. Oxygen (O2) produced by the splitting of water is released as a waste product. LIGHT produce a 6-carbon molecule with the aid of NADPH and ATP. • Glucose is used to provide energy, changed into other chemicals (cellulose, etc), or stored as starch. OXYGEN CARBON DIOXIDE ATP rrier carrying hy a c n dro ge ge dro n Hy PHASE 1 - Photolysis 2H2O O2 + 4H PHASE 2 - Carbon fixation Carbon dioxide and hydrogen are used to produce glucose Energy from light is used to split water. ATP is also produced. Hy en dro rog gen c arrier with no hyd ADP + P STARCH, CELLULOSE AND OTHER SUGARS WATER 8 GLUCOSE PHOTOCOPYING PROHIBITED MUTATIONS • The sequence of bases on a strand of DNA contains the genetic code (genes and their alleles) for the production of the proteins that, when assembled, make you. • In order to create a new gene or allele the base sequence on a section of DNA needs to change. When a permanent change occurs in the base sequence of DNA, scientists call it a mutation. G A G C T G T G A G G G A G C G G T G A G G C T C G A C A C T C C C T C G C C A C T C C The normal base sequence for a gene results in a protein that causes a rat to be dark-coloured. A point mutation in the gene for coat colour has resulted in a different protein being produced. This has resulted in a white-coloured rat. • Mutations can occur naturally during DNA replication or as a result of exposure to mutagens (substances that cause mutations) such as some chemicals (e.g.those found in cigarettes and fatty foods), ultraviolet light (from the sun), and radiation (from x-rays or radioactive materials, etc.). • Neutral or silent mutations have no observable effect on an organism. • Harmful mutations may affect the survival of the organism. • Beneficial mutations may give the organism a survival advantage over other members of its species, and it may live on in conditions where others die (e.g. there are insects that, due to a mutation, are resistant to most common insecticides). • If a mutation occurs in a body cell (somatic cell) it cannot be passed on to the next generation. Only when a mutation occurs in reproductive cells (gametic cells) can it be passed on to offspring. QUESTION ONE: MUTATION NZPQA New Zealand Pretend Qualifications Authority Discuss how mutation can lead to changes of alleles in the offspring of an organism, and the effect this can have over time. In your response you should include: • Why only some mutations are inherited. • The significance of changes over time. A mutation is a permanent change in the base sequence of DNA. Somatic mutations are alterations in DNA that occur after conception and occur in any of the cells of the body except the gametes (sperm and egg). Therefore, somatic mutations are not passed on to the offspring. Gametic mutations are a heritable change in the DNA that occurred in a gamete – a cell destined to become an egg or sperm. When transmitted to the offspring, a gametic mutation is incorporated into every cell of their body. Gametic mutations can lead to the formation of new alleles, changes in the allele frequency and therefore, produce variation. Changes in allele frequency over time may be of benefit if environmental factors change making the allele more favourable increasing its frequency or less favourable decreasing its frequency. Neutral mutations may become positive or negative as the conditions of the environment change over time. PHOTOCOPYING PROHIBITED 43 Walk-through - Cell Structures QUESTION ONE: MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS (a) Walk-through Mitochondria and chloroplasts are both found in plant cells. • Describe the main structural features of mitochondria AND chloroplasts. • Outline the function of both organelles. • You may use labelled diagrams in your answer. Describe the features of mitochondria. Include terms such as folded membrane, matrix, chemical reactions, surface area and cristae. Describe the function of mitochondria. Use terms such as respiration, break down, energy (ATP) and transport. NCEA-style questions are included, with walk-throughs, hints and tips designed to help students write complete and extended answers. Describe the features of chloroplasts. Include terms such as chlorophyll, inner and outer membrane, grana (or granum) thylakoids, stroma). Discuss the function of chloroplasts. Include terms such as chemicals, photosynthesis, sunlight. Draw a labelled diagram of both a mitochondrion and chloroplast in the space provided. 12 PHOTOCOPYING PROHIBITED NCEA Exam Questions - Variation QUESTION ONE: NEW ALLELES (2014) Pumpkins can grow in the wild. Wild pumpkins are usually round and have seeds in the centre. With the seeds being in the centre, when animals take a bite there is a high chance of seeds being eaten and then distributed. Mutations can occasionally cause pear-shaped pumpkins to form. Pear-shaped pumpkins have seeds at only one end. (a) Definetheterm‘mutation’. (b) Gametic mutation leads to pear-shaped pumpkins. Explain the process of gametic mutation including what it is, and where it occurs. Four years of previous NCEA exam questions are provided. A separate answers section allows students to improve and gauge their chances of success. QUESTION TWO: VARIATION (2013) Sources of variation in a gene pool result from the biological processes such as independent assortment and mutation. Discuss how independent assortment and mutation lead to variation within a gene pool. In your answer: • Describe independent assortment and mutation. • Explain why mutations are the major source of new alleles in a population AND why independent assortment does not introduce new alleles into a population. • Compare and contrast how independent assortment and mutation produce variation within an organism. 48 PHOTOCOPYING PROHIBITED THE SCIPAD RANGE JUNIOR SCIENCE LEVEL 1 SCIENCE LEVEL 1 SCIENCE MICRO LEVEL 1 REVISION 256 Pages - $18.00 256 Pages - $20.00 88 - 96 Pages - $8.50 108 Pages - $12.00 LEVEL 1 CHEMISTRY LEVEL 1 PHYSICS LEVEL 1 BIOLOGY 88 - 96 Pages - $8.50 72 - 96 Pages - $8.50 88 - 96 Pages - $8.50 LEVEL 2 CHEMISTRY LEVEL 2 BIOLOGY LEVEL 2 PHYSICS External Standards 304 Pages - $20.00 Internal Standards 104 Pages - $5.00 Revision Guide 108 Pages - $12.00 External Standards 240 Pages - $20.00 Internal Standards 96 Pages - $5.00 Revision Guide 108 Pages - $12.00 External Standards 352 Pages - $20.00 Internal Standards 96 Pages - $5.00 Revision Guide 108 Pages - $12.00 VIEW EVERY PAGE ONLINE