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Module 2: History & Perspectives
*Since the beginning, man has tried to understand human nature. But only since
the 1800’s have we attempted to study human beings scientifically, rather than
philosophically. The core of psychology is the use of the scientific method to test ideas.
Psychology is a relatively young science. We’ll talk more about scientific method in
Module 4.
*Scientific study involves systematic collection & examination of data (empirical
evidence) to support or disprove hypotheses/predictions rather than depending on
common sense.
Monism = mind & body as different aspects of the same thing; dualism = mind &
body as different things that interact

When did Psychology start and what was its focus?
Since the beginning, man has tried to understand human nature. But only since
the 1800’s have we attempted to study human beings scientifically, rather than
philosophically. The core of psychology is the use of the scientific method to test ideas.
Psychology is a relatively young science, about 125 years.
Historically, psychology was initially defined as the “science of mental life”
because it studied internal, subjective experience, i.e., our sensations, thoughts, feelings,
dreams and beliefs.
Wilhelm Wundt: generally considered the father/founder of psychology because
he created the first laboratory for studying humans in Leipzig, Germany. He tried to
scientifically study consciousness, specifically how sensation, perception & feeling
influenced our behavior, trying to reduce consciousness to its basic elements.
Introspection was the technique use, i.e., describing one’s own conscious
experiences in a systematic way
E. B. Titchener: the founder of structuralism, which analyzes the basic elements
of thoughts and sensations, i.e., their intensity, clarity and quality in attempt to determine
the basic structure of conscious experience.
William James: the first American psychologist and writer of the first psychology
textbook. WJ founded functionalism which emphasizes the functions of consciousness,
especially in terms of how it helps us adapt to our environment. Functionalists were
more interested in explaining behavior and applying psychological principals to practical
problems.
Gestalt psychology: asserts that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; it
emphasizes out tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes, i.e.,
notes of music into a coherent song. They disagreed with behaviorist stance of ignoring
internal processes.
*Charles Darwin: his key contribution was the notion that if we studied the less
complex behavior of animals, we could apply what we learned to human behavior. We’ll
talk more of Darwin when we study evolutionary psychology.

Who were the key figures in psychology during the 20th century?
Sigmund Freud: founder of psychoanalysis, one of the first comprehensive
theories of personality. He emphasized the importance of unconscious conflicts and
drives and early childhood development upon personality. Although many of his ideas
are considered outdated, he is still one of the most famous and influential figures in
psychology. He differed from early psychologists in that he focused on abnormal
behavior and relied on personal observation & reflection instead of controlled
experimentation.
In the 1900s-1960s, American psychologists like John Watson redefined
psychology as the “science of observable behavior”. They insisted psychology must be
based on what can be observed and measured, not conjectured and guessed at.
Ivan Pavlov was the founder of classical conditioning (1906).
John B. Watson: the father of behaviorism, the dominant perspective of the 20th
century which believes psychology should only study observable, measurable behavior.
Today, psychology includes both, thus it the science of mental processes and
behavior.
In the 1960’s Humanistic psychology became popular. HP focuses on the
conscious experience, freedom of choice and the capacity for human growth. Key figures
include Abraham Maslow (Hierarchy of Needs) & Carl Rogers (Client-centered therapy).
There emphasis that the whole person is greater than the sum of their parts is reminiscent
of the Gestaltists.
Another key figure was Jean Piaget, the noted Swiss cognitive psychologist, who
particularly focused on child development.

Who are some of the important early figures in psychology in America?
G. Stanley Hall: a student of Wundt, the first American man to earn a PhD. He
founded the APA and was its first president. He also opened the 1st American
psychological laboratory
Mary Whiton Calkins: the first woman to complete the requirements for a PhD
(though Harvard refused to grant it) and was the APA’s first women president
Margaret Floy Washburn: 1st woman to receive a PhD in psychology & wrote the
st
1 book on comparative psychology (animals and humans)
Frances Cecil Sumner: the first African-American man to receive a PhD
Inez Beverly Prosser: the 1st African American woman to receive a PhD
Kenneth & Mamie Phipps Clark were educational psychologists whose research
was instrumental in Brown vs. Board of Education and the banishing of “separate but
equal” educational facilities. Kenneth Phipps was the 1st black president of the APA.
Psychology was not immune to discrimination against minorities and women that
was characteristic of 19th & 20th century; they were discouraged from attending academic
institutions. These days although 2/3s of graduate students are women, there are less than
33% minority representation in the field (which is the current percentage among the US
population.

What are the 6 basic present-day approaches or perspectives for psychology?
Psychological perspectives or schools of thought or psychological approaches
each refer to a particular collection of ideas that attempt to explain human behavior:
biological or biopsychological; cognitive, humanistic, behavioral, sociocultural and
psychodynamic
“Cognitive” approach = emphasizes the importance of our mental processes, i.e.,
our thoughts on human development. The cognitive approach focuses on how we
receive, interpret and apply information. It focuses on the internal conversations we have
going on in our heads. The basic premise is that what we think greatly influences how
feel and how we behave (“Nice shirt” example). Thinking, reasoning & language are
keys to understanding human behavior.
. “Biological” or “biopsychological” approach = views behavior as strongly
influenced by physiology, i.e., the biochemistry of our body.
Examples: physiological effects of stress re: CHD or antibody levels; low
serotonin levels that correlate with depression, etc.,
“Sociocultural” approach = views behavior as strongly influenced by the rules and
expectations of specific social groups or cultures we’re part of. The focus here is on how
the particular racial, ethnic and religious groups we belong to shape us; and how our
behavior changes depending on the particular social situation we find ourselves in.
Examples: individualism vs. collectivism, bystander effect
“Psychoanalytic” (or psychodynamic) approach = emphasizes the importance of
unconscious conflicts and drives and early childhood development upon personality.
This is Freud’s theory of personality. He believed we actively repress, i.e., ban from
consciousness thoughts and feelings, especially sexual and aggressive ones, that make us
uncomfortable. Drives and conflicts of that we bury in our unconsciousness during
childhood continue to influence our behavior as adults. Examples: if you didn’t get
enough love as a child up from your mother (or father), you may unconsciously pick
uncaring or rejecting partners as an adult, trying to work out this childhood conflict.
“Behavioral” approach = views behavior as the product of learning and
associations. Past experiences shape our present behavior, i.e., as we go through life, we
notice that certain things we do are rewarded (so we do them more) and certain things we
do are punished (so we do them less). As mentioned before, behaviorism believes
psychology should study only observable behavior; unconscious conflicts (or mental
processes at all) have no place in behaviorism.
o Behaviorists also believe man is essentially shaped by his environment. A
famous quote by John B. Watson goes, “Give me a dozen healthy infants,
well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll
guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of
specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes,
even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants,
tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors (Myers p. 234).
o Behaviorists do not put much stock in free will. If you can control a
person’s environment, i.e., the rewards and punishments they receive, you
can control a person’s child’s learning and thus their behavior. Critics of
behaviorism say its mechanistic, reducing human beings to little more than
robots. Antecedent environmental  Behavior  Consequences
“Humanistic” approach = views people as basically good and capable of helping
themselves. All of us our born with an innate tendency towards self-actualization, i.e., to
fulfill our potential, to be the best person we can be. If we follow this “inner voice”, we
can do anything. If our life is stalled, something is interfering with this natural tendency.
The humanistic approach focuses on conscious awareness (as opposed to psychoanalytic
theory) and our freedom to choose (as opposed to behaviorism). Abraham Maslow &
Carl Rogers are two key forerunners of humanistic psychology
*“Evolutionary” approach = based on Darwin’s theory of natural selection,
explaining behavior as adaptations to enhance reproductive success

*What is “eclecticism”?
“Eclecticism” = the process of making your own system by borrowing from two
or more other systems; the basic notion behind eclecticism is that you don’t have to
subscribe to one single approach to psychology. You may think one approach best
explains a particular situation best; yet opt for a different approach for a different
situation. Or you may find that 2 or 3 different approaches all provide valuable insights
for a third situation.

What is “behavioral genetics?
Behavioral genetics = tries to determine to what extent individual differences
among human beings are determined by heredity vs. life experience. BG tries to solve
the age-old nature-nurture debate, i.e., is our personality determined more by our genetic
heredity, which is determined before we’re even born; or by our environment, i.e., what
we learn and experience after we’re born.

What is “evolutionary psychology?
“Evolutionary psychology” = studies the evolution of behavior and the mind
using principles of natural selection. Its focus is on universal human traits (as opposed to
behavioral genetics which focuses on individual differences).
“Natural selection” = inherited traits that have adaptive value, i.e., superior
hearing or smell, result in the organism surviving and thus passing on this new genetic
code to succeeding generations; less adaptive mutations don’t make it and aren’t
perpetuated.
For example: EP explains male/female mate-selection differences in terms of
their evolutionary survival value. Men are attracted to partners based more of physical
features (suggesting youth and health, i.e., reproductive potential); women are more
interested in a man’s status and influence, his long-term potential as a provider.
EP biggest critiques are: it tends to be non-predictive, that is after the fact
theorizing, it reinforces inequitable male/female stereotypes and it minimizes the
importance of “nurture” variables re: human behavior (especially gender roles).

What is “positive psychology”?
Positive psychology = movement that focuses on the study of optimal human
functioning; and factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive
Martin Seligman founded PP, believing that psychology had become preoccupied
with repairing the worst aspects of life rather than building on positive qualities.
PP differs from humanistic psychology in its focus on research