Download Introduction to mitigation assessments

Module 1
Introduction to Mitigation Under the
UNFCCC
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
The science of climate change.
Definition and scope of mitigation
Contributions of IPCC Working Group 3 (WG3) on
mitigation in the Third Assessment Report (TAR).
The UNFCCC Guidelines on mitigation assessment.
The potential benefits of mitigation
Interactions between mitigation and development
Integrating mitigation and adaptation
1.1
Module 1a
The Science of Climate Change
1.2
Our Atmosphere is Changing
•
•
•
During the last century, the
atmospheric concentration of
greenhouse gases and their radiative
forcing have continued to rise as a
result of human activities.
Global average surface temperatures
have increased by about 0.6 °C.
Global average sea level has risen and
ocean heat content has increased.
•
“The balance of evidence suggests a
discernable human influence on global
climate” (IPCC, SAR, 1995)
•
“There is new and stronger evidence
that most of the warming observed
over the last 50 years is attributable to
human activities” (IPCC, TAR, 2001)
•
CO2 Concentrations and Global
Average Temperatures Will Continue to
Rise
• Pre-industrial
level: 280 ppm
• Current level:
360 ppm
• Level in 2100:
~700 ppm with
large uncertainty
Source: IPCC, 2001
1.3
Some Expected Impacts
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sea level projected to rise 0.09 to 0.88m by 2100 with significant regional variations.
Extreme weather events are projected to increase.
Impacts on biodiversity generally negative.
Socioeconomic systems could show net economic benefits for small amounts of
warming, but potentially large negative impacts under greater warming.
Increased water availability in some water-scarce regions, but decreased water
availability in many water scarce regions.
Initially increased agricultural productivity in some mid-latitude regions, but decreased
in the tropics and sub-tropics.
Significant disruptions of ecosystems from fire, drought, pest infestation, species
invasion, etc.
Changes in productivity and composition of ecological systems, with coral reefs,
boreal forests, arctic and montane regions being particularly vulnerable.
Increased risk of floods, potentially displacing tens of millions of people.
Increased incidence of heat stress mortality, and vector-borne diseases.
Some impacts effectively irreversible over many generations (thermohaline
circulation, Ice sheets, migration of plant species). Thermohaline disruption is
uncertain, but ice sheet melt and plant species migration are highly probable.
1.4
Developing Countries are the Most
Vulnerable to Climate Change
• Impacts are worse - already more flood and
drought prone and a large share of the economy is
in climate sensitive sectors.
• Lower capacity to adapt because of a lack of
financial, institutional and technological capacity
and access to knowledge
• Impacts disproportionately upon the poorest
countries and the poorest people, exacerbating
inequities in health status and access to adequate
food, clean water and other resources.
1.5
Adaptation
• Has the potential to reduce adverse effects of
climate change and can produce ancillary
benefits, but cannot prevent all damages.
• Numerous adaptation options have been
identified that can reduce adverse and enhance
beneficial impacts of climate change.
• Greater and more rapid climate change would
pose greater challenges for adaptation.
• Lower levels of future GHG concentrations will
make the adaptation challenge easier.
1.6
Stabilization of atmospheric CO2 will
require significant emissions reductions
Source: IPCC
1.7
Energy Sector CO2 Emissions in 2000
25
Billion Tons CO2
_
Other
Residential
Industry
Transport
Electricity
20
15
10
5
0
World
NA1
ROW
Source: IEA
1.8
Industrialized countries have emitted the most
anthropogenic CO2
(Area proportional to historical CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion, 1900-1999)
Source: WRI
1.9
In the future, the share of global GHG
emissions from NA1 parties will increase
1995 total emissions:
6.46 billion tons of carbon
2035 total emission estimate:
11.71 billion tons of carbon
Source: OSTP
1.10
Agricultural Sector
Contributes 20% of global anthropogenic GHG emissions
50% of global
methane emissions
from enteric
fermentation and
rice paddies
70% of global N20
emissions from artificial
fertilizers
5% of global CO2
emissions from
fossil fuel
consumption and
biomass burning
1.13
Solid Waste and Waste Water Disposal
1990 Emissions:
50-80 Mt CH4
Methane emissions are due
to anaerobic digestion of
organic material in landfills
and sewage effluent.
1.14
Forest Sector
Total CO2 Emissions from Deforestation and Land-Use Changes:
0.5-2.5 GtC
Burma Peru
Nigeria Philippines 3%
3%
3%
4%
Laos
5%
Thailand
6%
Rest of world
31%
Cote d'Ivoire
6%
Colombia
6%
Brazil
21%
Indonesia
12%
1.15
Module 1b
Definition and Scope of Mitigation
Assessment
1.16
Definitions
• Mitigation is defined as any anthropogenic
interventions that can either reduce the sources
of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
(abatement) or enhance their sinks
(sequestration).
• In the context of the UNFCCC, a mitigation
assessment is a national-level analysis of the
various technologies and practices that have the
capacity to mitigate climate change.
1.17
Time-Frame
• Need to examine long-run
opportunities for reducing carbon
sources or enhancing sinks,
bearing in mind the life-times of
various appliances and systems.
• Rate of technological change is
closely related to the lifetime of
capital stock.
Buildings 45+++ years
Hydro 75+ yrs
Coal power 45+ yrs
Nuclear 30 – 60 years
Gas turbines 25+ years
Motor vehicles 12 – 20 years
1.18
Scope
• Includes energy demand and supply,
forestry, agriculture, rangelands and waste
management.
• Includes analysis of the impact of options
on the macro-economy.
• Considers policies and programs that can
encourage adoption of mitigation
technologies and practices
1.19
Module 1c
The contributions of Working Group 3 (WG3)
on mitigation in the IPCC Third Assessment
Report (TAR)
1.20
Background on WG 3: Mitigation
•
•
The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC)
has three working groups:
– WG I to assess the
Science of climate
change
– WG II to assess Impacts,
adaptation and
vulnerability
– WG III to assess
Mitigation of climate
change
WGIII was charged by the IPCC Plenary for the Panel’s Third Assessment
Report (TAR) to assess the scientific, technical, environmental, economic,
and social aspects of the mitigation of climate change.
1.21
Major Topics Covered in WGIII
Report on Mitigation
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions Scenarios
• Technological and Economic Potential of Mitigation
Options
• Technological and Economic Potential of Sinks
• Barriers, Opportunities, and Market Potential
• Policies, Measures, and Instruments
• Costing Methodologies
• Global, Regional and National Costs and Ancillary
Benefits
• Sectoral Costs and Ancillary Benefits of Mitigation
• Decision Analytic Frameworks
• Gaps in Knowledge
1.22
Chapter 2: Greenhouse Gas Mitigation
Scenarios and Implications
• This chapter reviews three scenario literatures: general
mitigation scenarios produced since the SAR, narrativebased scenarios found in the general futures literature,
and mitigation scenarios based on the new “SRES”
scenarios.
• In addition, it provides recommendations for future
research, including the need for more explicit analysis of
policy instruments leading to mitigation, inclusion of
other GHGs than CO2, and capacity building for
scenario analyses in developing countries.
1.23
Chapter 2:
GHG Emissions Scenarios
•
•
•
Scenarios represent plausible
future worlds with particular
economic, social and
environmental characteristics
Mitigation scenarios are usually
defined as a description and a
quantified projection of how GHG
emissions can be reduced with
respect to some baseline
scenario.
Special Report on Emissions
Scenarios (SRES): Four scenario
families. Each family has a
unifying theme in the form of a
“storyline” or narrative that
describes future demographic,
social, economic, technological,
and policy trends
1.24
Qualitative Directions for SRES
Scenarios
1.25
Chapter 3: Technological and Economic
Potential GHG Emissions Reductions
• Describes technologies and practices to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions in the end-use
sectors of the economy as well as through
changes in energy supply.
• Concludes that while there is significant potential
for GHG emissions reductions in every sector
considered, appropriate policies is required to
realize the potential.
1.26
Chapter 4: Options to Enhance,
Maintain, and Manage Carbon Sinks
•
•
Assesses biological and geoengineering mitigation
measures to capture carbon
in terrestrial ecosystems,
focusing on the physical
mitigation potential, ecological
and environmental
constraints, economics, and
social considerations.
Concludes that by 2010
mitigation in LULUCF
activities can lead to
significant mitigation of CO2
emissions while
complementing other land
management objectives. Geoengineering is not ready for
near-term application.
1.27
Chapter 5: Barriers, Opportunities, and Market
Potential of Technologies and Practices
• Discusses the barriers that slow the
transfer and penetration of technologies
and practices that have the potential to
reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.
• Also discusses theories and models to
understand technological and social
innovation and its drivers and implications.
• Topic addressed in Module 4.
1.28
Chapter 6:
Policies, Measures, and Instruments
• Examines the major types of policies and
measures that can be used to mitigate net
GHG concentrations in the atmosphere.
• In addition to economic dimensions,
political, economic, legal, and institutional
elements are considered insofar as they
are relevant to the discussion of policies
and measures.
1.29
Chapter 7:
Costing Methodologies
• Addresses methodological issues that arise in the
estimation of the monetary costs of climate change.
• The focus is on the correct assessment of the costs of
mitigation measures to reduce the emissions of GHGs.
• Includes discussion of technologically rich bottom-up
models and more aggregate top-down models, which
link the energy sector to the rest of the economy.
• Concludes with recommendations for further research
while contending that much progress has been made
since the SAR.
1.30
Chapter 8: Global, Regional, and National
Costs and Ancillary Benefits of Mitigation
• Examines the literature on the costs of greenhouse gas
mitigation policies at the national, regional, and global
levels.
• Net welfare gains or losses are reported, including (when
available) the ancillary benefits of mitigation policies.
• These studies employ the full range of analytical tools
described in Chapter 7.
• Concludes that the cost estimates of stabilizing
atmospheric CO2 concentrations depend upon the
concentration stabilization target, the emissions pathway
to stabilization and the baseline scenario assumed.
1.31
Chapter 9:
Sector Costs and Ancillary Benefits of Mitigation
• Reviews the research on the cost implications
and ancillary benefits of mitigation strategies
across sectors, including:
– Top-down studies that capture general effects on the
economy and tend to consider price-driven policies
such as carbon taxes rather than technology policies.
– Bottom-up studies that examine technology-driven
options; and financial cost-benefit analyses of
individual mitigation measures.
1.32
Chapter 10:
Decision-making Frameworks
• Provides a critical appraisal of policy-oriented analyses
and summarizes the emerging insights in a form that
allows policymakers to make informed judgments.
• Considers the special features of climate change in the
context of how they affect decision-making in different
frameworks.
• Suggests that mitigation, adaptation, and learning
activities should be carefully crafted over time but that
mitigation action at any level should start in the near
term.
1.33
Main WGIII Conclusions:
Nature of the Mitigation Challenge
• Climate change is a problem with unique characteristics
– Global, long-term, involves complex interactions between
climatic, environmental, economic, political, institutional, social,
and technological processes
• Alternative development paths can result in very different
GHG emissions (e.g., SRES)
• Climate change mitigation will both be affected by, and
have impacts on, broader socio-economic policies and
trends
• Differences in distribution of resources are key
considerations (i.e., equity concerns)
• Lower emissions scenarios require different patterns of
energy resource development
1.34
Module 1d
The UNFCCC Guidelines on
Mitigation Assessment
1.35
The United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
•
•
•
•
•
Came into force in 1994; signed by over 150 countries.
Overall framework for intergovernmental efforts to tackle climate change.
Recognizes that climate is affected by anthropogenic emissions of GHGs.
Seeks “stabilization of GHG concentrations…at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system” (Article 2)
Parties
– expected to “take precautionary measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the
causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse effects” (Article 3).
– have “common but differentiated responsibilities” based on their national
circumstances.
•
– gather and share information on GHG emissions, national policies and
best practices.
– launch national strategies for addressing greenhouse emissions and
adapting to expected impacts, including the provision of financial and
technological support to developing countries.
– cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the impacts of climate change.
The Conference of Parties (COP) is the highest decision-making authority of
the Convention.
1.36
UNFCCC Parties
• Annex I: members of OECD in 1992 + economies in transition
(EIT).
• Annex II: OECD members of Annex I. Required to provide financial
resources to enable developing countries to undertake emissions
reduction activities and to help them adapt to adverse effects of
climate change. Must also "take all practicable steps" to promote
development & transfer of environmentally friendly technologies to
EITs and developing countries.
• Non-Annex I (NA1) are mostly developing countries.
– Certain countries recognized as being especially vulnerable to climate
change, including countries with low-lying coastal areas and those
prone to desertification and drought. Others are more vulnerable to the
potential economic impacts of climate change responses (e.g. fossil fuel
exporting nations).
– The 48 least developed countries (LDCs), are given special
consideration under the Convention on account of their limited capacity
to respond to climate change and adapt to its adverse effects.
1.37
Status of National Communications
• National communications have become an important tool for
bringing climate change concerns to the attention of policy makers
at the national level.
• In 2002, COP8 in India adopted a set of new and improved
guidelines for national communications (17/CP.8).
• By July 2005, initial national communications had been presented to
the COP by 125 NA1 parties, and second national communications
had been presented by 3 NA1 parties.
• In the next phase of the Convention in which the focus is
increasingly on implementation, national communications will
become an important strategic tool to help countries align their
interests and priorities to the overall goals of the Convention.
1.38
Reporting Commitments
• Article 4, p.1, and Article 12, p.1, of the convention
provide for each Party to report to the COP:
– information on its emissions by sources and removals by sinks of
all greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol
(greenhouse gas inventories);
– national or, where appropriate, regional programmes containing
measures to mitigate, and to facilitate adequate adaptation to
climate change (general description of steps taken or envisaged
by the Party to implement the Convention);
– any other information that the Party considers relevant to the
achievement of the objective of the Convention.
1.39
Guidelines for National Communications
Preparation for non-Annex I Parties
• Adopted in 2002, at COP8. Principal objectives:
– to assist NA1 Parties in meeting their reporting requirements;
– to encourage the presentation of information in a consistent,
transparent, comparable and flexible manner;
– to facilitate the presentation of information on support required
for the preparation of national communications;
– to serve as policy guidance to the operating entity of the financial
mechanism of the Convention, for the timely provision of
financial support needed by NA1 Parties in order to fulfill their
reporting requirement;
– to ensure that the COP has sufficient information to carry out its
responsibility for assessing the implementation of the
Convention by Parties.
1.40
Information to be Included
in NA1 Party National Communications
• National inventory of anthropogenic emissions by
sources and removal by sinks of all greenhouse gases
not controlled by the Montreal Protocol
• A general description of steps taken or envisaged by the
Party to implement the Convention
• Any other information that the Party considers relevant to
the achievement of the objective of the Convention and
suitable for inclusion in its communication, including, if
feasible, materials relevant for calculations of global
emission trends.
1.41
National Circumstances for
NA1 Parties
• NA1 parties should provide a description of national and regional
development priorities, objectives and circumstances, on the basis
of which they will address climate change and its adverse impacts.
– This may include information on geography, climate and economy which
may affect their ability to deal with mitigating and adapting to climate
change, as well as information regarding specific needs and concerns
arising from the adverse effects of climate change and/or the impact of
the implementation of response measures.
• NA1 parties are encouraged to provide a summary of relevant
information regarding their national circumstances, as appropriate,
in tabular form.
• NA1 parties may provide a description of existing institutional
arrangements relevant to the preparation of their national
communications on a continuous basis.
1.42
Mitigation Guidelines (1)
• Each NA1 Party shall … communicate to the COP a general
description of steps taken or envisaged by the Party to implement
the Convention, taking into account its common but differentiated
responsibilities and its specific national and regional development
priorities, objectives and circumstances. (25)
• NA1 Parties may provide information on programmes containing
measures to mitigate climate change by addressing anthropogenic
emission by sources and removals by sinks of all GHGs not
controlled by the Montreal Protocol, and measures to facilitate
adequate adaptation to climate change, following the provisions in
these guidelines. (26)
1.43
Mitigation Guidelines (2)
• The extent to which developing country Parties will effectively
implement their commitment to communicate this information will
depend on the effective implementation by developed country
Parties of their commitments under the Convention relating to
financial resources and transfer of technology. (27)
• Each Party shall provide to the COP information on … steps taken
or envisaged for formulating, implementing, publishing and regularly
updating national and, where appropriate, regional programmes
containing measures to mitigate climate change … and any other
information they consider to be relevant…. (37)
1.44
Methodological Approaches for
Mitigation
• Based on national circumstances, NA1 Parties are encouraged to
use whatever methods are available and appropriate in order to
formulate and prioritize programmes containing measures to
mitigate climate change; this should be done within the framework of
sustainable development objectives, which should include social,
economic and environmental factors. (38)
• In their assessment of these programmes on various sectors of the
economy, NA1 Parties may use the appropriate technical resources.
(39)
– Such as Technologies, Policies and Measures for Mitigating Climate
Change (IPCC Technical Paper I); GHG Mitigation Assessment: A
Guidebook by the US Country Studies Program; Climate Change 2001:
Mitigation (Contribution of Working Group III to the Third Assessment
Report of the IPCC).
1.45
Reporting
• Based on national circumstances, NA1 Parties are
encouraged to provide, to the extent their capacities
allow, information on programmes and measures
implemented or planned which contribute to mitigating
climate change by addressing anthropogenic emissions
by sources and removals by sinks of all GHGs not
controlled by the Montreal Protocol, including, as
appropriate, relevant information by key sectors on
methodologies, scenarios, results, measures and
institutional arrangements.
1.46
Module 1e
Potential Benefits of Mitigation
Activities
1.47
The Benefits of GHG Mitigation
• Primary: GHG emissions abatement: reducing
global climate change.
• Co-benefits: non-climate benefits explicitly
incorporated into the creation of GHG mitigation
policies.
• Ancillary benefits: side-effects that arise
subsequent to any proposed mitigation policy:
– E.g. reductions in local and regional air pollution,
associated with the reduction of fossil fuels, and
indirect effects on issues such as transportation,
agriculture, land use practices, biodiversity
preservation, employment, income and fuel security.
1.48
Mitigation Could Provide Local
Benefits…
•
•
•
•
•
•
Local environmental protection.
Poverty alleviation
Reduce fossil fuel consumption
Improve technological base.
Increase in technological efficiency and effectiveness,
Improvements in the security and availability of power
supply.
• Reduction in road congestion with a shift from private to
public transport.
• Increase in employment resulting from mitigation
projects.
• Strengthening of institutional, systemic and human
capacity.
1.49
Potential Levels and Scope
• Global, regional and country level.
• Short, medium and long term.
• Scope of the approach: general
(aggregated) benefit and sector benefit
• Identification of key benefit by sectors:
energy and non energy.
1.50
Some Key Challenges
• Identification, estimation and valuation of
mitigation benefits.
• Relation between mitigation and
sustainable development
1.51
Different Tools, Policies, Measures
and Instruments
• Global: Kyoto Protocol.
• Country level : emissions, carbon, or energy taxes,
subsidies, deposit-refund systems, voluntary
agreements, permits (tradable and non-tradable),
technology and performance standards, product bans,
direct government spending, including R&D investment.
• Regional level: tradable quotas, joint implementation,
clean development mechanism, harmonized emissions,
carbon or energy taxes, quotas, international technology
and product standards, voluntary agreements, and direct
international transfers of financial resources and
technology.
1.52
Module 1f
Interactions between mitigation
and development
1.53
Development will be Undermined
by Climate Change
The Challenge:
• Poverty: 1.3 billion people live on less than $1 per day and 3 billion people on
less than $2 per day. Top 20% income group uses 86% of resources, while
bottom 20% uses under 1.3%
• Food: 800 million people malnourished today -- food production needs to
double in the next 35 years
• Water: 1.3 billion people without clean water; 2 billion without sanitation
• Energy: 2 billion people without electricity
• Environment: 1.4 billion people exposed to dangerous levels of outdoor
pollution and even larger number exposed to dangerous levels of indoor air
pollution and vector-borne diseases
• Shelter: many live in areas susceptible to civil strife, environmental
degradation, and natural disasters
1.54
Developing Countries are the Most
Vulnerable to Climate Change
• Impacts disproportionately on the poorest countries
and people, who have contributed least to GHG
emissions: exacerbates inequities in health status and
access to adequate food, clean water and other resources.
• Net effects negative in most developing countries, but
mixed for developed countries for warming up to a few ºC.
– A warming of greater than a few ºC is likely to result in net effects
becoming negative for most countries
1.55
An integrated climate change-sustainable
development strategy is essential
Climate
Change
Development
Former Viewpoint
Climate
Change
Integrated
`
CC-SD
Strategy
Development
Emerging Viewpoint
Source: Adapted from Munasinghe, 2005
1.56
Climate
Climate Change Stresses
System
Adaptation
Sustainable Development
Domain
Climate Domain
Human and
Natural Systems
Adaptive
Capacity
Feedbacks
Feedbacks
Feedbacks
Econ. Soc. Envir.
Feedbacks
Atmospheric
GHG Emission
and
Concentration
Scenarios
Feedbacks
Mitigative
Capacity
Different
Socio-economic
Development
Human Actions Causing
GHG Emissions
Paths
Source: Munasinghe, 2005
1.57
CO2 and Development
20’000
Canada
USA
Russia
10’000
UK
Germany
Japan
Poland
France
China
Venezuela
5000
Brazil
Pakistan
India
Australia
Nigeria
Indonesia
Mozambique
South Africa
Emissions by
sector, kg
CO2 per
capita per
year (2001)
Other sectors
Non-road transport
Road transport
Manufacturing
Energy industries
Heat and power
Source: WBCSD 2005
OECD
Non-OECD
1.58
Goals of Energy Development
Energy sector development focuses on enhancing:
• access to clean energy services
– 1.6 billion people do not consume any
electricity, and very little kerosene or LPG
– Household energy consumption is 212
kgoe/cap (compared to 651 kgoe/cap in
industrialized countries); about 25%
comes from biomass used traditionally
• quality of the local environment
– Indoor air pollution kills 2 million women
and children prematurely
– Only 15% of cities in developing countries
have acceptable urban air quality
1.59
Energy and Poverty
• The poor typically spend a greater fraction of
their income on indispensable energy services,
such as cooking, than do the rich.
• At the same time, they frequently forgo (or
compromise severely on) services like lighting
and space heating that require energy carriers
(e.g., electricity) and devices (e.g., fluorescent
lights) to which they either don’t have access, or
whose first costs tend to be unaffordable.
1.60
Goals of Energy Development
Energy sector development focuses on enhancing:
• economic productivity
– Non-household energy intensity in
developing countries is 0.36 kgoe/$GDP (compared to 0.19 kgoe/$-GDP
in industrialized countries)
– Competitiveness and opportunity
costs of supply expansion drive
energy efficiency initiatives
• security of energy supply
– Energy imports are a large fraction of
exports
– Volatility in international prices leads
to macroeconomic instability
1.61
Module 1g
Integrating Mitigation and
Adaptation
1.62
Integrating Mitigation and
Adaptation
• UNFCCC identifies two separate options for addressing
climate change: mitigation and adaptation.
• There are increasing calls to better integrate these two
fields.
• Because of long lag times in the climate system, no
mitigation efforts will be able to prevent climate change.
• Conversely, reliance on adaptation alone would lead to a
large magnitude of climate change, to which it would be
very expensive to adapt.
1.63
Synergies
• Synergies exist when measures that control GHG
concentrations also reduce adverse climate impacts.
– E.g. urban tree planting provides both sequestration and reduces heat
stress.
• Significant downside of placing too much focus on
seeking synergies:
– Implementation of synergistic measures can involve great institutional
complexity
– Opportunities for synergistic measures are probably very limited
compared to the overall challenges of each field.
– Many synergistic measures may not be a wise investment in terms of
mitigation and adaptation benefits.
– Risks that activities will be labeled as both mitigation and adaptation
activities to make them more attractive for funding – thereby diminishing
overall effectiveness of how climate funds are spent.
1.64
Mixing Mitigation and Adaptation
• Seeking an “optimal” mix of activities may be a poor approach given
uncertainties about climate change and the widely differing interests,
values and preferences of stakeholders.
• Seeking robustness is probably a better approach to decision
making.
• “Mainstreaming” is an emerging approach that seeks to integrate
policies and measures that address climate change into ongoing
sectoral and development planning and decision making: so as
ensure long-term sustainability and reduce vulnerability to both
current and future climate.
• Currently, institutions are not well adapted to support this type of
integrated approach.
1.65
Possible Topics for Discussion
• What is the proper role of mitigation in the
development plans of the least developed
countries?
• What are the differences between
pursuing mitigation and adaptation
policies?
• What is the role of the U.N. National
Communications Support Programme
(NCSP)?
1.66