Download File - AP Psychology

LEARNING
• A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs through experience.
• 2 types:
1. Associative learning: occurs when we make a
connection between two events.
• Classical and Operant Conditioning
• Conditioning: the process of learning
associations.
2. Observational learning: occurs when a person
observes and imitates another’s behavior.
OPERANT
CONDITIONING
• A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a
behavior change the probability of a behavior’s occurrence.
• Also called instrumental learning
• Active process; behaviors occur spontaneously; the learner
decides whether or not to repeat behavior based on the
consequence
• Voluntary behavior
• Keywords: behavior, consequences
• Important people:
• Thorndike
• Skinner
• Seligman
THE LAW OF EFFECT
• Studied by Edward Thorndike (1898)
• Locked hungry cats in a puzzle box and placed food outside
• Cat’s used ‘trial and error’ to escape box and get food
• Voluntary behavior changes because of its consequences:
• Pleasant consequences strengthen behavior
• Unpleasant consequences weaken behavior
• Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and
behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
B.F. SKINNER
•
•
•
•
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
American psychologist
Mac daddy of Operant Conditioning
Developed the Skinner Box to test
his concepts
• Used rodents and pigeons
• “Free will is an illusion!”
SKINNER BOX
• Originally known as an Operant Conditioning Chamber
• Used to control experimental conditions
• Has a lever or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a
reinforcer such as food or water
• The lever or key is connected to devices that record the
animal’s response
ABC’S OF BEHAVIOR
CONSEQUENCES
Reinforcement
Punishment
• A reinforcer is anything that • A punisher is anything that
INCREASES a behavior.
DECREASES a behavior.
• + Positive Reinforcement • + Positive Punishment
• Addition of something
• Addition of something
pleasant.
unpleasant.
• - Negative Reinforcement • - Negative Punishment
• Removal of something
• Removal of something
unpleasant.
pleasant.
• Two types:
• Escape Learning
• Avoidance Learning
CONSEQUENCES
Reinforcement
• Positive Reinforcement
• Example:
• Getting money for
grades
• Getting a sticker for
good behavior
• Negative Reinforcement
• Example:
• Taking aspirin to get rid
of a headache
• Skipping class vs. getting
kicked out of class
Punishment
• Positive Punishment
• Example:
• Getting a spanking
• Getting a speeding
ticket
• Negative Punishment
• Example:
• Having your phone
taken away
• Going to jail
CONTINGENCY
• Contingency: means that the behavior must serves as
a reliable indicator that the consequence is on its way.
SHAPING
• Rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired
behavior.
• Reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior.
• To train a dog to get your slippers, you might reinforce
these small steps:
• First, to find the slippers
• Then, to put the slippers in his mouth
• Next, to walk with the slippers in his mouth
• Last, to bring the slippers to you
PRIMARY & SECONDARY
REINFORCERS
•
Primary Reinforcer:
• Innate value
• Things that are naturally reinforcing
because they satisfy biological drives
such as food, water, sleep, sex
•
Secondary Reinforcer:
• Learned/Conditioned value
• Things that we learn are reinforcing
such as money, grades
TOKEN ECONOMY
• Good behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be
exchanged for desired rewards.
• Tokens: poker chips, fake money/coins, stickers, tickets…
• Based on applied behavior analysis (ABA): the use of
operant conditioning principles to change human behavior.
• Also called behavior modification
• Emphasizes the use of positive reinforcement to change
behavior
ACQUISITION
• The association is made between the behavior
and the consequence.
• Learning occurs when the learner becomes
aware that the behavior has been reinforced or
punished (consequence).
GENERALIZATION &
DISCRIMINATION
Generalization:
• Performing a reinforced
behavior in a different
situation.
• Same behavior different
situation
Discrimination:
• Responding appropriately
to stimuli that signal that
a behavior will or will not
be reinforced.
• Different behavior for
different situations
EXTINCTION &
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
• Extinction: Decreases the frequency of a behavior
when the behavior is no longer reinforced.
• Spontaneous Recovery: The behavior suddenly
resumes after extinction.
SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
•
Continuous Reinforcement:
•
Reinforces the desired behavior every time it occurs.
•
Learned quickly; easy to extinguish
•
Examples:
•
Using a token to ride the subway.
•
Putting coins in a vending machine to get candy or
soda.
•
Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement:
•
Reinforces the desired behavior only part of the time.
•
Slower acquisition; harder to extinguish
RATIO SCHEDULES
•
Fixed-ratio schedule:
• Reinforcement after a set number of behaviors.
• Example:
• Workers paid per 100 envelops stuffed
• Getting to leave class after a multiple choice test.
•
*Variable-ratio schedule:
• Reinforcement after a varying (unpredictable) number
of behaviors.
• Examples:
• Playing a slot machine
• Fishing/hunting
INTERVAL SCHEDULES
•
Fixed-interval schedule:
• Reinforcement of the first behavior after a set amount
of time has passed.
• Examples:
• Getting a paycheck every two weeks
• Scheduled exams
•
Variable-interval schedule:
• Reinforcement of the first behavior after varying
(unpredictable) amounts of time has passed.
• Example:
• POP Quizzes
• Arrival of mail
SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
Schedule
Fixed-ratio
schedule
Variableratio
schedule
Fixedinterval
schedule
Variableinterval
schedule
Reinforcement Schedules Compared
Response Rate
Pattern of Responses
Very high
Steady response with low ratio.
Brief pause after each
reinforcement with very high ratio.
Highest response rate Constant response pattern, no
pauses
Resistance to Extinction
The higher the ratio, the more
resistance to extinction.
Most resistance to extinction.
Lowest response rate
Long pause after reinforcement,
followed by gradual acceleration.
The longer the interval, the more
resistance to extinction.
Moderate
Stable, uniform response.
More resistance to extinction
than fixed- interval schedule with
same average interval.
SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
IMMEDIATE & DELAYED
REINFORCEMENT
•
Immediate Reinforcement: A reinforcer that occurs
immediately after a behavior.
•
More effective for lower animals
•
Example:
•
A rat gets a food pellet when it presses a lever.
•
Delayed Reinforcement: A reinforcer that is postponed for a
period of time after a behavior.
•
Has an effect on human behavior
•
Example:
•
A paycheck that comes at the end of a week.
IMMEDIATE & DELAYED
PUNISHMENT
•
Immediate Punishment: A punisher that occurs immediately
after a behavior.
•
More effective for lower animals
*Punishment works best when it is immediate and harsh!
•
Delayed Punishment: A punisher that is postponed for a
period of time after a behavior.
•
Has an effect on human behavior
DELAYED
GRATIFICATION
• The ability to resist the temptation for a small immediate reward
and wait for a larger delayed reward.
• Immediate & mildly valued vs. delayed & highly valued
• Also called deferred gratification
• Example:
• We may be more inclined to watching TV rather than get an
A in AP Psychology, which requires constant studying.
• Studied by Walter Mischel
• The Marshmallow Test
• Results found that delayed gratification correlated to:
• Higher SAT scores
• higher levels of competence reported by parents & teachers
• Lower rates of substance abuse
• Prefrontal cortex vs. limbic system
MOTIVATION
•Extrinsic Motivation:
• The desire to perform a behavior due to external
incentives such as rewards and punishments.
•Intrinsic Motivation:
• The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake,
based on internal factors such as needs and fun.
OVERJUSTIFICATION
•Occurs when extrinsic motivation decreases a person's intrinsic
motivation to perform a behavior or participate in an activity.
•When you pay more attention to the incentive, and less
attention to the enjoyment and satisfaction that you receive
from performing a behavior or activity.
• Examples:
• A painter may not paint for pleasure when she is
accustomed to being paid for her work.
• Losing interest in playing the violin after your mother
promises to pay you for each hour of practice.
• Rewarding kids for playing math games. After the rewards
are terminated, children spent significantly less time
playing the games than they had before they ever got
rewards.
PREMACK PRINCIPLE
• Preferred behaviors can be used as reinforcement for
less preferred behaviors.
• Preferred: behaviors with a higher level of intrinsic
value/occur more often
• Using an activity that is pleasurable to reward an
activity that is less pleasurable.
• Examples:
• You have to clean your room before you watch TV
• You have to do your homework before you can go
to the movies
LEARNED
HELPLESSNESS
• An organism's learning through experience with unavoidable
negative stimuli that it has no control over negative outcomes.
• Studied by Martin Seligman (1967)
• Dogs shocked for prolonged period of time would stop
attempting to escape, even when given the opportunity to do so.
• Has implications in depression.