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Chapter 7: Learning Study Guide ANSWERS How Do We Learn? 1. learning 2. associate; associations; associative learning 3. classical; stimulus 4. operant 5. cognitive learning; observing; observational learning Classical Conditioning 6. Ivan Pavlov; John Watson; behaviorism 7. neutral stimulus; unconditioned stimulus 8. unconditioned response 9. conditioned stimulus; conditioned response 10. the cat 11. your mother's behavior 12. your fear today 13. your crying 14. a. is the answer. Your dog had to learn to associate the rattling sound with the food. Rattling is therefore a conditioned, or learned, stimulus, and salivation in response to this rattling is a learned, or conditioned, response. 15. acquisition; one-half second 16. does not 17. survive; reproduce 18. neutral; conditioned; higher-order conditioning 19. extinction 20. spontaneous recovery 21. generalization 22. similar; discrimination 23. adaptive 24. generalization; discriminating 25. adapt 26. objectively Classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their environment. Classical conditioning also provided an example to the young field of psychology of how complex, internal processes could be studied objectively. In addition, classical conditioning has proven to have many helpful applications to human health and well-being. 27. craving; context 28. can InWatson and Rayner's experiment, classical conditioning was used to condition fear of a rat in Albert, an ll-monthold infant. When Albert touched the white rat (neutral stimulus), a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus) was sounded. After several pairings of the rat with the noise, Albert began crying at the mere sight of the rat. The rat had become a conditioned stimulus, triggering a conditioned response of fear. This showed that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are a bundle of conditioned responses. Operant Conditioning 29. law of effect; rewarded; recur 30. consequences; reinforcers; punishers 31. Skinner box (operant chamber); reinforcement 32. shaping; approximations 33. concepts; discriminating 34. discriminative stimulus 35. c. is the answer. The parrot is reinforced for making successive approximations of a goal behavior. This defines shaping. a. Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure; salivation at the sight of dog biscuits is a classically conditioned response. b. Shaping involves the systematic reinforcement of successive approximations of a more complex behavior. In this example there is no indication that the response of stopping at the intersection involved the gradual acquisition of simpler behaviors. 36. positive reinforcer 37. negative reinforcer 38. primary reinforcers 39. conditioned (secondary) reinforcers 40. more 41. is; delayed; drug; unprotected sex 42. reinforcement schedule; desired response 43. continuous reinforcement; rapid; rapid 44. partial (intermittent); slower; very 45. fixed-ratio 46. variable-ratio 47. fixed-interval; checking the mail as delivery time approaches 48. variable-interval Following reinforcement on a fixed-interval schedule, there is a pause in responding and then an increasing rate of response as time for the next reinforcement draws near. On a fixed-ratio schedule there also is a post-reinforcement pause, followed, however, by a return to a consistent, high rate of response. Both kinds of variable schedules produce steadier rates of response, without the pauses associated with fixed schedules. In general, schedules linked to responses produce higher response rates and variable schedules produce more consistent responding than the related fixed schedules. 49. c. is the answer. Reinforcement (the letter) comes after a fixed interval, and as the likely end of the interval approaches, your behavior (glancing out the window) becomes more frequent. a. & b. These answers are incorrect because with ratio schedules, reinforcement is contingent upon the number of responses rather than on the passage of time. d. Assuming that the mail is delivered at about the same time each day, the interval is fixed rather than variable. Your behavior reflects this, since you glance out the window more often as the delivery time approaches. 50. a. is the answer. Ratio schedules maintain higher rates of responding-gambling in this example than do interval schedules. Furthermore, variable schedules are not associated with the pause in responding following reinforcement that is typical of fixed schedules. The slot machine would therefore be used more often, and more consistently, if jackpots were scheduled according to a variable-ratio schedule. 51. c. is the answer. Whereas Lars is paid (reinforced) after Chapter 7: Learning Study Guide ANSWERS a fixed period of time (fixed-interval), Tom is reinforced for each sale (fixed-ratio) he makes. 52. negative reinforcement. By taking out the garbage, Jack terminates a negative stimulus-his father's nagging. 53. conditioned reinforcer. Being invited to your instructor's home as part of a select group is a conditioned reinforcer in that it doesn't satisfy an innate need but has become linked with desirable consequences. 54. increases; removing; decreases; presenting 55. punishment; positive punishment; negative punishment 56. suppressed; discrimination; fear; the person who administered it 57. aggressiveness 58. a. Punishment. You lose something good conversation with your roommate. b. Negative reinforcement. You are no longer cold, which means something bad has been removed. c. Negative reinforcement. You are no longer thirsty, so something bad has been removed. d. Punishment. You can't use your laptop; certainly, something good has been taken away. e. Negative reinforcement. Your brother stops nagging you, so something bad has been removed. 59. external; internal thoughts; feelings 60. operant; behavior 61. dehumanized; freedom; control 62. shaping; testing; interactive; web; athletic 63. more; achievable; more 64. a. State your goal in measurable terms. b. Monitor the behavior (when and where it occurs). c. Reinforce the desired behavior. d. Reduce the rewards gradually. 65. c. is the answer. a. Positive reinforcement is most effective in boosting productivity in the workplace when specific behavior, rather than vaguely defined general merit, is rewarded. Also, immediate reinforcement is much more effective than the delayed reinforcement described in a. b. Positive reinforcement is most effective in boosting productivity when performance goals are achievable, rather than unrealistic. d. The text does not specifically discuss the use of punishment in the workplace. However, it makes the general point that although punishment may temporarily suppress unwanted behavior, it does not guide one toward more desirable behavior. Therefore, workers who receive pay cuts for poor performance may learn nothing about how to improve their productivity. 66. d. is the answer. By making a more preferred activity (watching TV) contingent on a less preferred activity (room cleaning), Reggie's mother is employing the operant conditioning technique of positive reinforcement. 67. associative learning 68. acquisition; extinction; spontaneous recovery; generalization; discrimina tion 69. neutral; automatic; does not 70. respondent 71. operant 72. cognitive; biological 73. a. voluntary; operant conditioning b. involuntary; classical conditioning c. voluntary; operant conditioning d. involuntary; classical conditioning Biology, Cognition, and Learning 74. response; stimulus 75. sickness; would; ecologically 76. biological; adapt; levels of analysis 77. is 78. reinforcer; shape; food 79. adaptive; instinctive drift 80. a. is the answer. As in this example, conditioning must be consistent with the particular organism's biological predispositions. b. Some behaviors, but certainly not all, are acquired more rapidly than others when shock is used as negative reinforcement. c. Pigeons are able to acquire many new behaviors when food is used as reinforcement. 81. b. is the answer. a., c., & d. Taste-aversion research demonstrates that humans and some other animals, such as rats, are biologically primed to associate illness with the taste of tainted food, rather than with other cues, such as the food's appearance. Moreover, taste aversions can be acquired even when the interval between the CS and the illness is several hours. 82. cognition 83. predict; cognitive; expect 84. alcohol dependence 85. cognitive 86. cognitive map 87. latent learning 88. intrinsic motivation; extrinsic motivation 89. d. is the answer. Sharetta is guided by her mental representation of the city, or cognitive map. a. Latent learning, or learning in the absence of reinforcement that is demonstrated when reinforcement becomes available, has no direct relevance to the example. b. Observational learning refers to learning from watching others. c. Shaping is the technique of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. 90. a. is the answer. The unrewarded rat is demonstrating latent learning. It has developed a cognitive map of the maze. 91. b. is the answer. Wanting to do something for its own sake is intrinsic motivation; wanting to do something for a reward (in this case, presumably, a high grade) is extrinsic motivation. a. The opposite is true. Nancy was motivated to take the course for its own sake, whereas Jack was evidently motivated by the likelihood of a reward in the form of a good grade. c. & d. A good grade, such as the one Jack is Chapter 7: Learning Study Guide ANSWERS expecting, is an incentive. Drives, however, are aroused states that result from physical deprivation; they are not involved in this example. 92. modeling; observational learning; occurs 93. Bandura 94. more 95. rewards; punishments 96. similar; successful; admirable; consistent 97. mirror; frontal; observational; observe other monkeys performing the same task; empathize; imitate; networks 98. 8 to 16 months; 14 months; empathy; theory of mind 99. increases; mirror neurons; prosocial 100. c. is the answer. Studies indicate that when a model says one thing but does another, subjects do the same and learn not to practice what they preach. 101. b. is the answer. The girls are imitating behavior they have observed and admired. a. Because these behaviors are clearly willful rather than involuntary, classical conditioning plays no role. c. Latent learning plays no role in this example. d. Shaping is a procedure for teaching the acquisition of a new response by reinforcing successive approximations of the behavior. 102. prosocial 103. antisocial; abusive; aggressive; genetic 104. watching television 105. violent 106. link 107. aggression; crime 108. causation; does 109. imitation; desensitize