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Running Head: B.F. Skinner
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B.F. Skinner: Noted Researcher in the Instructional Design Field
Karen E. Garcia
The University of Tampa
EME 610
B.F. Skinner
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Introduction
From a historical point of view and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral
psychology, Instructional Design (ID), as it is known today is still considered a relatively new
field. Although the study of learning activities dates back to the late 1800’s, educational
psychologist Robert Gagné is said to be one of the most important figures in the history of
instructional design. However, it was B.F. Skinner principle of behavior modification and
application on teaching and learning that greatly influenced instructional design. Skinner’s
orientation to instructional design was behavioral, and other behaviorist designs followed his
basic model (Edgar, 2012). He combined strategy principles and components into the first real
empirically tested model of interaction (Reigeluth, 1983). In ID, observations are part of
formative evaluation, which is conducted to collect information about whether instruction
resulted in learning and how it might be improved to result in even better learner performance
(Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). It is with those observations the application of learning and behavior
theories can be applied to the learning process.
The goal of this paper is to briefly cover B.F. Skinner’s educational and professional
achievements, research and contributions to the field of ID, and the future direction of his
research.
Educational and Professional Achievements
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (a.k.a. B.F. Skinner) was born on March 20, 1904, in the small
town of Susquehanna, Pennsylvania (A+E Television Networks, 2014). He is said to have two
unique characteristics, his eagerness to apply this science to his own behavior, and his desire to
create a better world with the same principles he applied in his own life (Clayton, 2008). To a
large degree, Skinner was influenced by the work of notable psychologist, John B. Watson, Ivan
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Pavlov and Edward Thorndike. At an early age, Skinner showed an interest in building different
gadgets and contraptions (A+E Television Networks, 2014). This proved to be of use when he
decided to build his operant conditioning chamber, known as the Skinner Box (see figure 1).
The box or container was basically a chamber that contained either a bar, key or lever the animal
could press in order to receive food or water as a type of reinforcement. Also in the chamber,
was a device that recorded each response by the animal, including the distinctive schedule of
reinforcement the animal was assigned to receive (Clause, 2014). Additionally, in 1943, he built
a new type of crib, known as Baby Tender or Air Crib (see figure 2) for his second daughter at
his wife's request, which served as a climate controlled environment (A+E Television Networks,
2014; Frye, 2014). It was basically an oversized metal crib, with a ceiling, three solid walls, and
a safety-glass pane at the front, which could be lowered to move the baby in and out of the crib
(Joyce & Faye, 2010).
Figure 1. Skinner Box
Note. From Faryadi, Q. (2007). Behaviorism and the Construction of Knowledge. Online Submission.
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Figure 2. Baby Tender or Air Crib
Note. From Vitelli, R. (2009). Heir Conditioning. Providentia, A biased look at psychology in the world.
Skinner received his BA in English from Hamilton College in upstate New York, his
Masters in Psychology in 1930, and his doctorate in 1931, both from Harvard University. He
remained at Harvard until 1936. He then taught at the University of Minnesota and later at
Indiana University, where he was Chair of the Psychology Department. In 1947, he returned to
Harvard and remained there for the rest of his career (A+E Television Networks, 2014; Cooper,
2013).
Research Efforts and Contributions
Skinner was one of the most influential psychologist of the 20th century who had a
profound impact on the development of behaviorism by conducting groundbreaking research in
reinforcement and punishment and the study of behavior (Frye, 2014). He wrote several books
and articles on behavior, learning, and reinforcement. He founded the school of thought known
as radical behaviorism, which built on and expanded the theory of behaviorism (Frye, 2014).
Behaviorism, which literally means the doctrine of behavior (Martin, 1978), was developed in
the late 19th and early 20th century as a reaction to the theories of psychologists who were
studying the interior events of the mind, e.g. thoughts, feelings, perceptions and unobservable
emotions. However, these behaviorists rejected the study of such mental processes, claiming that
B.F. Skinner
they could not be studied objectively. Instead, they said, psychology should concern itself
exclusively with behavior (Frye, 2014).
In 1937, Skinner introduced the Operant Conditioning Theory. Operant conditioning is a
method of learning that takes place through rewarding or punishing a certain behavior.
Reinforcement is said to be the ultimate shaper and maintainer of behavior. Thus, an association
is made between a behavior and its consequence. Operant conditioning can also be applied in
teaching in the form of programmed instruction, as long as the information is provided in small
chunks so that responses can be reinforced (Cooper, 2014).
Skinner's works also includes The Behavior of Organisms (1938) and a novel based on
his theories Walden Two (1948). He explored behaviorism in relation to society in later books,
including Beyond Freedom and Human Dignity (1971) (A+E Television Networks, 2014).
While teaching at the University of Minnesota, Skinner tried to train pigeons to serve as guides
for bombing runs during World War II. Even though the project was cancelled, he was able to
teach them how to play ping pong. In his article Teaching Machines, published in Science
(1958a), Skinner pushed harder for the use of technology in education that could present
programming material prepared by programmers (Lockee et al., 2004). He later wrote The
Technology of Teaching (1968). Skinner also wrote several works applying his behavioral
theories to society, including Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971). Here, he encountered
criticism for implying that humans had no free will or individual consciousness. In 1974, he tried
to set the record straight regarding any misinterpretations of his work with About Behaviorism
(A+E Television Networks, 2014).
In 1954, Skinner introduced the Programmed Instruction Educational Model (Pappas,
2013), which is basically technology to improve teaching. It is characterized by self-paced, self-
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administered instruction presented in logical sequence with much repetitions of concepts
(Lockee, Moore & Burton, 2004). Skinner first conceptualized a teaching machine (see figure 3)
for the classroom for use by individual students. This machine could present information,
reinforce appropriately and then branch to the next level of difficulty depending on the
individual's performance. The roots of Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and computer-based
instruction (CBI) can be easily regarded as sophisticated extensions of programmed instruction
theory and concept seen in Skinner's teaching machine (Lockee et al., 2004; Wilburg, 2003).
Figure 3. Teaching Machine
Note. From Luderacy. (2012). What is Educational Technology? Luderacy.com.
In May of 1988, Skinner founded The B.F. Foundation, which began as a publisher of
behavioral books mostly written by Skinner. The Foundation states that it promotes the science
founded by Skinner and supports the practices derived from that science. In doing so, the
Foundation advances a more humane world by replacing coercive techniques with positive
procedures (Vargas, 2014).
Skinner’s original work, along with more recent systematic treatments, provided an
important framework for the analysis of verbal behavior. Research states, verbal behavior is the
most important and conspicuous behavioral characteristic of humans in relation to other species
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(Leigland, 2007). From planning a trip to the bank, to the development of new cultural practices,
the influence of verbal relations are seen virtually everywhere in human affairs.
Skinner’s contributions to applied behavior fall into five categories: (a) the style and
content of his science, (b) his interpretations of typical and atypical behavior, (c) implications he
drew from his science for application, (d) his descriptions of possible applications, and (e) his
own applications to human and nonhuman behavior. In making these contributions, he also
addressed the seven dimensions of applied behavior analysis (Morris, Smith & Altus, 2005).
Future Direction of Research
In August 18, 1990, B. F. Skinner died of leukemia after becoming perhaps the most
celebrated psychologist since Sigmund Freud (Cooper, 2013). Since his death there have been
several examinations of his life and work. Either focusing on an appreciation of him and his
contributions to psychology or a critique to understanding radical behaviorism and the
controversies it generated. There is little doubt the reason for continued interest lies in the
significant contributions Skinner made to psychology (O’Donohue & Ferguson, 2001). While
many of his behavioral theories have lost acceptance, Skinner's identification of the importance
of reinforcement remains a critical discovery. He believed that positive reinforcement was a
great tool for shaping behavior, an idea still valued in numerous settings including schools today
(A+E Television Networks, 2014).
For many contemporary thinkers, the idea that Skinner’s radical behaviorism and
postmodernist philosophy of science are compatible would appear ridiculous, or at best
superficial. Although few would disagree, Skinner contributed much to psychological thinking
of the 20th century (Cautilli, Rosenwasser & Hantula, 2003).
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Conclusion
B.F. Skinner is probably one of the most well-known figures in American psychology.
Terms associated with his name that tend to produce strong emotional reactions include,
behavior modification, aversive control, punishment, determinism, and environmental control
(DeBell, 1992). His influence spreads from psychology to research methodology in physiology
and neurology, to principles and practices in education, to life’s everyday events.
While trends in educational philosophy and learning theory have shifted away from
behavioral sciences to more cognitive and constructivist approaches, these authors contend that
Programmed Instruction has never really ceased to exist. There is probably no single movement
that has impacted the field of Instructional Design and Technology than Programmed Instruction.
Its influence is apparent in the processes which have continued to serve as the standards for the
field (Lockee et al., 2004). For Skinner, education is perhaps the most important branch of
scientific technology. In the present state of knowledge of educational practice, scheduling of
behaviors and consequences appears to be most effectively arranged through the design of the
material to be learned (Lockee et al., 2004).
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References
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Cautilli, J., Rosenwasser, B. & Hantula, D. (2003). Behavioral Science as the Art of the 21st
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B.F. Skinner
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ner's%20Teaching%20Machine%20for%20Dewey's.htm
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