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Running Head: B.F. Skinner 1 B.F. Skinner: Noted Researcher in the Instructional Design Field Karen E. Garcia The University of Tampa EME 610 B.F. Skinner 2 Introduction From a historical point of view and traditionally rooted in cognitive and behavioral psychology, Instructional Design (ID), as it is known today is still considered a relatively new field. Although the study of learning activities dates back to the late 1800’s, educational psychologist Robert Gagné is said to be one of the most important figures in the history of instructional design. However, it was B.F. Skinner principle of behavior modification and application on teaching and learning that greatly influenced instructional design. Skinner’s orientation to instructional design was behavioral, and other behaviorist designs followed his basic model (Edgar, 2012). He combined strategy principles and components into the first real empirically tested model of interaction (Reigeluth, 1983). In ID, observations are part of formative evaluation, which is conducted to collect information about whether instruction resulted in learning and how it might be improved to result in even better learner performance (Reiser & Dempsey, 2012). It is with those observations the application of learning and behavior theories can be applied to the learning process. The goal of this paper is to briefly cover B.F. Skinner’s educational and professional achievements, research and contributions to the field of ID, and the future direction of his research. Educational and Professional Achievements Burrhus Frederic Skinner (a.k.a. B.F. Skinner) was born on March 20, 1904, in the small town of Susquehanna, Pennsylvania (A+E Television Networks, 2014). He is said to have two unique characteristics, his eagerness to apply this science to his own behavior, and his desire to create a better world with the same principles he applied in his own life (Clayton, 2008). To a large degree, Skinner was influenced by the work of notable psychologist, John B. Watson, Ivan B.F. Skinner Pavlov and Edward Thorndike. At an early age, Skinner showed an interest in building different gadgets and contraptions (A+E Television Networks, 2014). This proved to be of use when he decided to build his operant conditioning chamber, known as the Skinner Box (see figure 1). The box or container was basically a chamber that contained either a bar, key or lever the animal could press in order to receive food or water as a type of reinforcement. Also in the chamber, was a device that recorded each response by the animal, including the distinctive schedule of reinforcement the animal was assigned to receive (Clause, 2014). Additionally, in 1943, he built a new type of crib, known as Baby Tender or Air Crib (see figure 2) for his second daughter at his wife's request, which served as a climate controlled environment (A+E Television Networks, 2014; Frye, 2014). It was basically an oversized metal crib, with a ceiling, three solid walls, and a safety-glass pane at the front, which could be lowered to move the baby in and out of the crib (Joyce & Faye, 2010). Figure 1. Skinner Box Note. From Faryadi, Q. (2007). Behaviorism and the Construction of Knowledge. Online Submission. 3 B.F. Skinner 4 Figure 2. Baby Tender or Air Crib Note. From Vitelli, R. (2009). Heir Conditioning. Providentia, A biased look at psychology in the world. Skinner received his BA in English from Hamilton College in upstate New York, his Masters in Psychology in 1930, and his doctorate in 1931, both from Harvard University. He remained at Harvard until 1936. He then taught at the University of Minnesota and later at Indiana University, where he was Chair of the Psychology Department. In 1947, he returned to Harvard and remained there for the rest of his career (A+E Television Networks, 2014; Cooper, 2013). Research Efforts and Contributions Skinner was one of the most influential psychologist of the 20th century who had a profound impact on the development of behaviorism by conducting groundbreaking research in reinforcement and punishment and the study of behavior (Frye, 2014). He wrote several books and articles on behavior, learning, and reinforcement. He founded the school of thought known as radical behaviorism, which built on and expanded the theory of behaviorism (Frye, 2014). Behaviorism, which literally means the doctrine of behavior (Martin, 1978), was developed in the late 19th and early 20th century as a reaction to the theories of psychologists who were studying the interior events of the mind, e.g. thoughts, feelings, perceptions and unobservable emotions. However, these behaviorists rejected the study of such mental processes, claiming that B.F. Skinner they could not be studied objectively. Instead, they said, psychology should concern itself exclusively with behavior (Frye, 2014). In 1937, Skinner introduced the Operant Conditioning Theory. Operant conditioning is a method of learning that takes place through rewarding or punishing a certain behavior. Reinforcement is said to be the ultimate shaper and maintainer of behavior. Thus, an association is made between a behavior and its consequence. Operant conditioning can also be applied in teaching in the form of programmed instruction, as long as the information is provided in small chunks so that responses can be reinforced (Cooper, 2014). Skinner's works also includes The Behavior of Organisms (1938) and a novel based on his theories Walden Two (1948). He explored behaviorism in relation to society in later books, including Beyond Freedom and Human Dignity (1971) (A+E Television Networks, 2014). While teaching at the University of Minnesota, Skinner tried to train pigeons to serve as guides for bombing runs during World War II. Even though the project was cancelled, he was able to teach them how to play ping pong. In his article Teaching Machines, published in Science (1958a), Skinner pushed harder for the use of technology in education that could present programming material prepared by programmers (Lockee et al., 2004). He later wrote The Technology of Teaching (1968). Skinner also wrote several works applying his behavioral theories to society, including Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1971). Here, he encountered criticism for implying that humans had no free will or individual consciousness. In 1974, he tried to set the record straight regarding any misinterpretations of his work with About Behaviorism (A+E Television Networks, 2014). In 1954, Skinner introduced the Programmed Instruction Educational Model (Pappas, 2013), which is basically technology to improve teaching. It is characterized by self-paced, self- 5 B.F. Skinner administered instruction presented in logical sequence with much repetitions of concepts (Lockee, Moore & Burton, 2004). Skinner first conceptualized a teaching machine (see figure 3) for the classroom for use by individual students. This machine could present information, reinforce appropriately and then branch to the next level of difficulty depending on the individual's performance. The roots of Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) and computer-based instruction (CBI) can be easily regarded as sophisticated extensions of programmed instruction theory and concept seen in Skinner's teaching machine (Lockee et al., 2004; Wilburg, 2003). Figure 3. Teaching Machine Note. From Luderacy. (2012). What is Educational Technology? Luderacy.com. In May of 1988, Skinner founded The B.F. Foundation, which began as a publisher of behavioral books mostly written by Skinner. The Foundation states that it promotes the science founded by Skinner and supports the practices derived from that science. In doing so, the Foundation advances a more humane world by replacing coercive techniques with positive procedures (Vargas, 2014). Skinner’s original work, along with more recent systematic treatments, provided an important framework for the analysis of verbal behavior. Research states, verbal behavior is the most important and conspicuous behavioral characteristic of humans in relation to other species 6 B.F. Skinner 7 (Leigland, 2007). From planning a trip to the bank, to the development of new cultural practices, the influence of verbal relations are seen virtually everywhere in human affairs. Skinner’s contributions to applied behavior fall into five categories: (a) the style and content of his science, (b) his interpretations of typical and atypical behavior, (c) implications he drew from his science for application, (d) his descriptions of possible applications, and (e) his own applications to human and nonhuman behavior. In making these contributions, he also addressed the seven dimensions of applied behavior analysis (Morris, Smith & Altus, 2005). Future Direction of Research In August 18, 1990, B. F. Skinner died of leukemia after becoming perhaps the most celebrated psychologist since Sigmund Freud (Cooper, 2013). Since his death there have been several examinations of his life and work. Either focusing on an appreciation of him and his contributions to psychology or a critique to understanding radical behaviorism and the controversies it generated. There is little doubt the reason for continued interest lies in the significant contributions Skinner made to psychology (O’Donohue & Ferguson, 2001). While many of his behavioral theories have lost acceptance, Skinner's identification of the importance of reinforcement remains a critical discovery. He believed that positive reinforcement was a great tool for shaping behavior, an idea still valued in numerous settings including schools today (A+E Television Networks, 2014). For many contemporary thinkers, the idea that Skinner’s radical behaviorism and postmodernist philosophy of science are compatible would appear ridiculous, or at best superficial. Although few would disagree, Skinner contributed much to psychological thinking of the 20th century (Cautilli, Rosenwasser & Hantula, 2003). B.F. Skinner 8 Conclusion B.F. Skinner is probably one of the most well-known figures in American psychology. Terms associated with his name that tend to produce strong emotional reactions include, behavior modification, aversive control, punishment, determinism, and environmental control (DeBell, 1992). His influence spreads from psychology to research methodology in physiology and neurology, to principles and practices in education, to life’s everyday events. While trends in educational philosophy and learning theory have shifted away from behavioral sciences to more cognitive and constructivist approaches, these authors contend that Programmed Instruction has never really ceased to exist. There is probably no single movement that has impacted the field of Instructional Design and Technology than Programmed Instruction. Its influence is apparent in the processes which have continued to serve as the standards for the field (Lockee et al., 2004). For Skinner, education is perhaps the most important branch of scientific technology. In the present state of knowledge of educational practice, scheduling of behaviors and consequences appears to be most effectively arranged through the design of the material to be learned (Lockee et al., 2004). B.F. Skinner 9 References A+E Television Networks (2014). B.F. Skinner Biography. The Biography Channel website. Retrieved from http://www.biography.com/people/bf-skinner-9485671 Cautilli, J., Rosenwasser, B. & Hantula, D. (2003). Behavioral Science as the Art of the 21st Century Philosophical Similarities Between B.F. Skinner's Radical Behaviorism and Postmodern Science. Behavior Analyst Today, 4(2), 225-264. Clause, C. (2014). Skinner Box: Experiment, Theory & Quiz. Education Portal. Retrieved from http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/skinner-box-experiment-theoryquiz.html#lesson Clayton, M. (2008). The psychology of B. F. Skinner. Psychological Record, 58(2), 319-321 Cooper, S. (2013). Theories of Learning in Educational Psychology. B.F. Skinner, 1904-1990, Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from http://www.lifecirclesinc.com/Learningtheories/behaviorism/Skinner.html DeBell, C. S. (1992). B.F. Skinner: Myth and Misperception. Teaching of Psychology, 19(2), 68 Edgar, D.W. (2012). Learning Theories and Historical Events Affecting Instructional Design in Education. Recitation Literacy Toward Extraction Literacy Practices. SAGE Open, 2 (4). Retrieved from http://sgo.sagepub.com/content/2/4/2158244012462707 Faryadi, Q. (2007). Behaviorism and the Construction of Knowledge. Online Submission. Frye, T. (2014). B.F. Skinner’s Theories: Lesson and Quiz. Education Portal. Retrieved from http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/bf-skinners-theories-lesson-quiz.html#lesson Joyce, N., Faye, C. (2010). Skinner Air Crib. Association for Psychological Science, Observer, 23(7). Retrieved from B.F. Skinner https://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/publications/observer/2010/september10/skinner-air-crib.html Leigland, S. (2007). Fifty Years Later: Comments on the Further Development of a Science of Verbal Behavior. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(3) Lockee, B., Moore, D., & Burton, J. (2004). Foundations of programmed instruction. Handbook of research on educational communications and technology, 545-569 Luderacy. (2012). What is Educational Technology? Luderacy.com. Retrieved from http://luderacy.com/educational-technology/what-is-educational-technology/ Martin, M. (1978). Interpreting skinner. Behaviorism, 6(2), 129-138 Morris, E. K., Smith, N. G., & Altus, D. E. (2005). BF Skinner's contributions to applied behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst, 28(2), 99 Pappas, C. (2014). Instructional Design Models and Theories: Operant Conditioning Theory. eLearning Industry. Retrieved from http://elearningindustry.com/operant-conditioningtheory Pappas, C. (2013). Instructional Design Models and Theories. eLearning Industry. Retrieved from http://elearningindustry.com/instructional-design-models-and-theories Reiser, R. A., Dempsey, J.V. (2012). Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson Vargas, J. (2014). Skinner, B.F. Foundation. Main Activities. Retrieved from http://www.bfskinner.org/about-us/main-activities/ Vitelli, R. (2009). Heir Conditioning. Providentia, A biased look at psychology in the world. Retrieved from http://drvitelli.typepad.com/providentia/2009/08/heir-conditioning.html 10 B.F. Skinner Wiburg, K. M. (2003). An historical perspective on instructional design: Is it time to exchange skinner’s teaching machine for Dewey’s toolbox? Internet Time Group. Retrieved from http://www.internettime.com/itimegroup/Is%20it%20Time%20to%20Exchange%20Skin ner's%20Teaching%20Machine%20for%20Dewey's.htm 11