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MODULE OUTLINES AND STUDY OBJECTIVES FOR BIOLOGY 124
(2016)
The module is based on the prescribed text (Biology: The Dynamic Science,
3rd edition by Russell, Hertz & McMillan, Brooks/Cole Publishers,
International Edition). The numbers in brackets represent the relevant pages
in the book. Use your books to supplement the lectures and use the relevant
self-study questions to test your knowledge and understanding of the
material covered in the course.
Information from other sources will be specified accordingly. Additional
reading will be made available through SunLearn (http://learn.sun.ac.za).
CYTOLOGY: MODULE OUTLINE
The study material as presented in the 3nd Edition of Russell, Hertz &
McMillan is spread-out in several chapters.
Theme 1: Biological research and the origin and early history of
life (Chapters 1 [Introduction to Biological Concepts and
Research] & 25; with reference to pages in 23, 24, 26, 27 & 49)
Lecture 1 – The scientific approach (13-19, mostly self-study);
Characteristics and properties of life (2-6). The origin of life (553 -557). The
formation of molecules necessary for life (554). The Miller-Urey experiment
(556), The Fossil record and Geological Timetable (500-503; 554, Fig 25.1).
Lecture 2 - The origin of cells (557-565). The earliest prokaryotic cells (95;
559-532; (also 539-560)). Archaebacteria & Eubacteria (parts in 557-583).
The first eukaryotic cells (97-98; 561; 587-588). Multicellularity (563).
Asexual (574; 1097) and sexual reproduction (225;1098-1099). The
kingdoms of life (8-12; 548-549, Figs. 24.17, 24.18).
Theme 2: Cell structure (Cytology) (Chapter 5)(The Cell)
Lecture 3 - The cell theory (fundamental units of life) (90-92). To study
cells: Microscopy and cell size (91-94); cell fractionation (97, Fig. 5.8).
Surface-to-volume ratio (94). The organelles of the cell: Prokaryotic vs
eukaryotic cells (94-99). Plant and Animal cells (98, Fig. 5.9).
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Lecture 4 - Prokaryotes (Chapter 5 & 26)(Prokaryotes)
Basic form and function (95-97;567-570); Cell walls (570-571, Fig. 26.4);
Archea (582-584). Eubacteria (567; 577-581). Cyanobacteria (560, Fig. 25.4;
580).
Lecture 5 – Eukaryotic cells (Chapter 5)
General traits (Animal cells)(97); Organelles of the eukaryotic cell (97-115);
cell membrane glycocalix (94, Fig. 5.6; 97; (also Ch. 6, 119-125, Figs. 6.3,
6.5); nucleus & nucleolus (99-100); central dogma (3, Figs. 1.3,1.4; 311-314,
Fig. 15.3); ribosomes (100-102); endomembrane system (102-103, Fig. 5.17);
golgi complex (103-104); lysosomes (104-106);
Lecture 6 – Mitochondria (106)(also Ch. 8, 106-107); Microbodies
(peroxisomes and glyoxisomes)(106-107); cytoskeleton (107-109); flagella
and cilia (109-111); animal cell surface (113-115).
Lecture 7 - Plant cell structures.
Chloroplasts (111-112)(also Ch. 9:182-185, Figs. 9.2, 9.3, 9.16); central
vacuole (111-112); plant cell wall (112-113). Endosymbiotic theory and the
origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts (Ch. 25; 561-563, Figs. 25.5, 25.6,
25.7). Review.
CYTOLOGY: STUDY OBJECTIVES
Following your study of this module you should be able to:
1. Discuss the fundamental properties of life, including heredity.
2. Name/discuss the ideas about the origin of life.
3. Describe and discuss the Miller-Urey experiment, as well as give the
conclusions that may be reached from the results.
4. Name/discuss the most important points of Oparin’s so-called
“Bubble” Theory and the origin of cells.
5. Name the important milestones (regarding cell evolution) in the
geological record.
6. Name the characteristics and differences of prokaryots and eukaryots.
7. Say something about the possible origin of the nuclear membrane and
the ER, golgi apparatus and other organelles. Describe and discuss
the endosymbiosis theory.
8. Discuss the significance of multi-cellularity and sexual reproduction.
9. Name the six Kingdoms into which all organisms are classified and
say something about each.
10. Define the modern Cell Doctrine (cell theory).
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11. Say what is meant by the following (regarding microscopy): SEM,
TEM, ultrastructure, electron micrograph, resolution, ocular, and
objective.
12. Explain why cells cannot be smaller than a certain minimum size or
larger than a certain maximum size. Explain the surface-to-volume
ratio and discuss the implications for cell size.
13. Explain what is meant by cell fractionation and its use in biology.
14. Describe the structural organization of prokaryotic cells. In this case
you will also be able to state what is meant by the following: Plasmids
(and their value to modern biology) and Gram staining.
15. Describe and discuss the structural organization of eukaryotic cells.
16. Mention the most prominent differences between plant and animal
cells.
17. Discuss the structure of all the cell organelles and list their most
important function(s).
18. Define the following: Chromatin, histones, gene, transcription, and
translation. Explain to what the “central dogma” refers to?
19. Sketch the role of cell organelles in the synthesis, modification and
secretion of a protein such as insulin.
20. Discuss the composition, structure and functions of plant cell walls.
21. Discuss the structure and composition of the components of the
cytoskeleton.
22. Name the main functions of the cytoskeleton.
23. Describe the important extracellular structures involved in the
movement of cells
24. Describe the different intercellular junctions
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BIOCHEMISTRY: MODULE OUTLINES
UNIT ONE: MOLECULES AND CELLS
Lecture 1:
Chapter 2 Life, Chemistry and Water.
a) Elements, compounds and atoms (pp. 23-25)
b) Electrons determine the chemical behaviour of atoms (pp. 26-28)
c) Chemical bonds and chemical reactions (pp. 28-32)
d) Hydrogen bonds and the properties of water (pp.32-36)
e) Acids, bases, buffers and pH (pp. 36-38)
Lecture 2:
Chapter 3 Biological molecules: The carbon compounds of life.
a) Chemical bonds with carbon atoms (p. 43)
b) Functional groups of biological molecules (pp. 43-45)
c) Isomers (pp. 44-46)
d) Macromolecules are polymers assembled from monomers (p. 46)
Lecture 3:
Chapter 3 Biological molecules: The carbon compounds of life.
e) Carbohydrates (pp. 47-50)
f) Lipids (pp. 50-55)
g) Proteins (pp. 55-61)
h) Nucleotides and Nucleic acids (pp. 63-67)
Lecture 4:
Chapter 6 Membranes and Transport.
a) Membrane structure and function (pp. 120-126)
b) Passive transport across membranes (pp. 126-131)
Lecture 5:
Chapter 6 Membranes and Transport.
c) Active transport across membranes (pp. 131-134)
d) Exocytosis and endocytosis (pp. 134-137)
Lecture 6:
Chapter 4 Energy, Enzymes and Biological reactions.
a) Energy, life and the laws of thermodynamics (pp. 72-74)
b) Free energy and spontaneous reactions (pp. 74-76)
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Lecture 7:
Chapter 4 Energy, Enzymes and Biological reactions.
c) ATP is the driving force for cellular work through the coupling of exergonic
reactions to endergonic reactions (pp. 76-78)
d) Role of enzymes in biological reactions (pp. 78-81)
e) The regulation of enzyme activity helps to control metabolism (pp. 81-84)
Lecture 8:
Chapter 8 Harvesting chemical energy: Cellular respiration.
a) Catabolic paths release energy by oxidizing organic fuels (pp. 162-165)
Lecture 9:
Chapter 8 Harvesting chemical energy: Cellular respiration.
b) Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by oxidation of glucose to pyruvate (pp.
165-168)
Lecture 10:
Chapter 8 Harvesting chemical energy: Cellular respiration.
c) Pyruvate oxidation generates the two-carbon fuel of the citric acid cycle (pp.
168-169)
d) The citric acid cycle completes the energy-delivering oxidation of organic
molecules (pp. 169-170)
Lecture 11:
Chapter 8 Harvesting chemical energy: Cellular respiration.
e) Chemiosmosis links electron transport to ATP synthesis during oxidative
phosphorylation (pp. 171-176)
Lecture 12:
Chapter 8 Harvesting chemical energy: Cellular respiration.
f) Fermentation and anaerobic respiration allows cells to produce ATP without the
use of oxygen (pp. 176-179)
g) Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle connect with other metabolic cycles (pp. 170171)
BIOCHEMISTRY: STUDY OBJECTIVES
At the end of the Biochemistry sub-module you should be able to perform the
following:
Chapter 2 Life, Chemistry and Water.
a) Give the names and be able to describe the subatomic particles and
be able to indicate which of these is involved in the formation of
isotopes (pp. 23-25)
b) Describe and discuss the energy levels (electron shells) of atoms in
general and more specifically be able to describe and discuss the
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c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
orbitals of the first two energy levels (pp. 26-28)
Sketch a simplified diagrammatic representation of the atomic
structure of any atom with an atomic number of 20 or less (p. 27)
Distinguish between ionic, covalent, hydrogen and Van der Waals
bonds, and give and draw an example of each (pp. 28-32)
Describe the chemical properties of water and explain the importance
of water for living organisms (pp. 32-36, Fig. 2.9)
Describe the ionization of water (p. 36)
Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution (p. 36)
Give the definitions of an acid and a base, describe the pH scale and
perform a calculation of pH (pp. 36-37)
Explain what the importance is of buffers in living systems (pp. 37-38)
Chapter 3 Biological molecules: The carbon compounds of life.
a) Discuss the different bonds that carbon can form and illustrate these
with examples (p. 43)
b) Recognize the different functional groups which occur in cellular
material (pp. 43-45)
c) Know and recognize the different isomers that organic molecules can
form (pp. 44-46)
d) Explain the differences between the hydrolysis of polymers and the
condensation of monomers (p. 46, Fig. 3.5)
e) Give examples and functions of monosaccharides, disaccharides and
polysaccharides (pp. 47-49)
f) Recognize the molecular and structural formula of glucose (pp. 48,
Fig. 3.7)
g) Give examples of different lipids and their functions (pp. 50-55)
h) Recognize the structural formulas of a saturated fatty acid, an
unsaturated fatty acid and a fat. (pp. 50-51, Fig. 3.10 & 3.11)
i) Explain how phospholipids can form lipid bilayer structures as a
result of their hydrophobic and hydrophylic portions (p. 53, Fig. 2.14)
j) Give examples of proteins and their functions (p. 55, Table 3.2)
k) Recognize the backbone of an amino acid and show how a peptide
bond is formed (pp. 56-57, Fig. 3.18)
l) Recognize the 20 different amino acids and group them according to
their side chain properties (p. 56, Fig. 3.16)
m) show the relationship between the four levels of protein structure and
the chemical bonds that are relevant to each level (pp. 57-60)
n) relate primary structure with protein function and that changes in
amino acid sequence are associated with a loss of protein function
(p. 57)
o) relate protein folding to protein function and that denaturation or
unfolding brings about a loss of protein function (pp. 59-60)
p) give examples of nucleotides and nucleic acids as well as their
respective functions (pp. 63-64, Fig. 3.30)
q) name the molecular components of a nucleotide and explain how
these monomers are coupled to form a nucleic acid (pp. 63-65,
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Fig. 3.27, 3.28 & 3.29)
r) explain how genetic information in the form of DNA is transferred to
RNA to specify protein synthesis (the so-called “central dogma”)
(p. 314, Fig. 15.3)
s) discuss the structure of DNA and its replication through which
genetic information is maintained (pp. 65, Fig. 3.29)
Chapter 6 Membranes and Transport.
a) describe membrane structure in terms of the "fluid mosaic model" by
giving the particulars that support this structure (pp. 123-125, Fig.
6.5, 6.6 & 6.7)
b) describe the arrangement of the lipid components in the membrane
and assign a function to each one in the membrane and how this can
result in membrane fluidity (pp. 120-121, Fig. 6.2 & 6.3)
c) describe arrangement of the protein components in the membrane
and assign a number of functions to each type of membrane protein
(pp. 121-122, Fig. 6.4 & 6.5)
d) define diffusion and osmosis and explain the importance each one in
the biology of the cell (pp. 126-131)
e) describe the appearance of both plant and animal cells in isotonic,
hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions (pp. 130-131, Fig. 6.10)
f) name two types of transport that take place by means of carrier
proteins and give examples of each (pp. 127-128, 132-134)
g) compare endocytosis and exocytosis as well as to give the names of 3
forms of endocytosis while clearly differentiating between them
(pp. 134-137)
Chapter 4 Energy, Enzymes and Biological reactions.
a) give the two energy laws which have important consequences for all
life forms (pp. 72-74)
b) recognize the structure of ATP and name its components (p. 77, Fig.
4.5)
c) describe the formation of ATP, explain why ATP can serve as an
energy storage molecule and how ATP can be used to drive energy
requiring (endergonic) reactions (pp. 77-78)
d) explain on the basis of these two laws why all life forms need an
external source of energy (p. 72-74)
e) describe the structure and function of enzymes as well as the
conditions that influence the rate of product formation in enzyme
reactions (pp. 78-84)
f) describe the regulation of enzyme reactions by means of inhibition
and specifically make a comparison between competitive, noncompetitive, and feedback inhibition (pp. 82-83)
g) describe how the regulation of enzyme activity controls metabolism
(p. 83, Fig. 4.15)
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Chapter 8 Harvesting chemical energy: Cellular respiration.
a) Describe energy flow through ecosystems (p. 162, Fig 8.1)
b) Describe how catabolism releases energy by oxidation of organic fuels
(pp. 162-165)
c) Identify the reduced and oxidized components of a given reaction (p.
163, Fig. 8.2)
d) Describe the function of the coenzyme NAD+ (p. 164, Fig. 8.3)
e) Describe the steps of cellular respiration (Fig. 8.4)
f) Discuss glycolysis and in the discussion explain substrate level
phosphorylation as well as give the starting and end products of that
reaction in glycolysis (pp. 165-168, Fig. 8.5 & 8.8)
g) Give an account of the aerobic and anaerobic processing of pyruvate
(pp. 168 and 177)
h) How the product of glycolysis (pyruvate) is converted to acetyl-CoA
(pp. 168-169, Fig. 8.10)
i) Discuss the citric acid cycle and give an explanation as to how
compounds cycle through it as well as indicate what the starting and
end products are (pp. 169-170, Fig.8.11)
j) Discuss the electron transport chain and how it contributes to the
formation of ATP (pp. 171-175, Fig. 8.13)
k) Describe the arrangement of the electron carriers in the mitochondrial
inner membrane and explain how chemiosmotic ATP synthesis
functions (pp. 173-175, Fig. 8.14)
l) Calculate the net ATP production for both glycolytic and cellular
respiration (pp. 175-176, Fig. 8.16)
m) Describe both lactate and alcoholic fermentation (pp. 176-177, Fig.
8.17)
n) Explain the metabolism of both fats and proteins and at the same
time how they contribute to the energy yielding metabolism (pp. 170171, Fig. 8.12)
o) Explain the regulation of aerobic respiration according to the energy
requirements of the cell
GENETICS: MODULE OUTLINE
Chapter 10: Cell Division and Mitosis
(p205-224)
Lecture 1
 Mitosis in eukaryotes
 Control of the cell cycle
 Cell division in prokaryotes
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Chapter 11: Meiosis: The Cellular Basis of Sexual Reproduction (p225237)
Lecture 2
 The mechanisms of meiosis
 Mechanisms that generate genetic variability
Chapter 12: Mendel, Genes and Inheritance (p239-260)
Lecture 3
 Discovery of the Laws of Inheritance
 Mendel and the garden pea
 Mendel’s model of heredity
 Monohybrid and dihybrid crosses
Chapter 13: Genes, Chromosomes and Human Genetics (p261-285)
Lecture 4
 Genetic linkage and recombination
 Sex-linked genes
 Chromosomal mutations that affect inheritance
 Human genetics and genetic counselling
 Non-Mendelian patterns of inheritance
Chapter 14: DNA Structure, Replication, and Organization (p287-309)
Lecture 5
 Experiments which revealed the nature of genetic material
 The structure of DNA
Lecture 6
 DNA replication
 Mechanisms that correct replication errors
 DNA organization in eukaryotes and prokaryotes
Chapter 15: From DNA to protein (p310-338)
Lecture 7
 The connection between DNA, RNA and protein
 The genetic code
 Transcription: DNA-directed RNA synthesis
Lecture 8
 The production of mRNAs in eukaryotes
 Translation: mRNA-directed polypeptide synthesis
 Genetic changes that affect protein structure and function
Chapter 16: Regulation of Gene Expression (p339-368)
Lecture 9
 Regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes
 Transcription of the lac operon of E.coli
 Transcription of the trp operon of E.coli
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Lecture 10
 Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes
 Posttranscriptional, translational and posttranslational regulation
GENETICS: STUDY OBJECTIVES
Your study of this sub-module will be complete when you can:
Chapter 10: Cell Division and Mitosis (p205 - 224)
1. Describe the cycle of cell growth and division
2. Understand the mitotic cell cycle
3. Describe the formation and action of the mitotic spindle
4. Recognize cell cycle checkpoints
5. Understand the mechanism of cell division in prokaryotes
Chapter 11: Meiosis: The Cellular Basis of Sexual Reproduction (p225 237)
1. Describe meiosis I and meiosis II
2. Compare mitosis and meiosis
3. Explain the importance of meiosis in genetic diversity
Chapter 12: Mendel, Genes and Inheritance (p239 - 260)
1. Explain how a trait can disappear in one generation to reappear in the next
2. Briefly outline Mendel's crosses
3. Define homozygous, heterozygous, dominant, recessive
4. Distinguish between genotype and phenotype
5. Explain the use of a Punnet square
Chapter 13: Genes, Chromosomes and Human Genetics (p261 – 285)
1) Understand genetic linkage and recombination
2) Understand sex linkage
3) Describe chromosomal alterations that affect inheritance
4) Understand dominant, recessive and sex-linked patterns of inheritance
5) Understand non-Mendelian patterns of inheritance
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Chapter 14: DNA Structure, Replication, and Organization. (p287 –
309)
1. Describe the experiments that contributed to establish DNA as the hereditary
molecule
2. Outline the structure of a DNA molecule
3. List components and their role in DNA replication
4. Describe the mechanisms correct errors DNA replication errors
Chapter 15: From DNA to protein. (p310 – 338)
1. Define the " Central Dogma" of Biology
2. Outline transcription
3. Outline translation
4. Describe the genetic code
5. Define intron, exon and mRNA
6. Define genetic changes that affect protein structure and function
Chapter 16: Regulation of Gene Expression. (p339 - 368)
1. Discuss the lac operon of E.coli
2. Discuss the trp operon of E. coli
3. Understand the several level of regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes
EVOLUTION: MODULE OUTLINE
The evolution course covers Chapters 20-24 in the prescribed handbook,
Russell, Hertz & McMillan (3rd edition). We work directly out of the
handbook, but will introduce numerous interesting examples to illustrate
our points in the lectures. The handbook is the key to the course and the
lectures explain how the lock works.
Lecture 1 – Chapter 20. A history of the development of evolutionary
thought..
Lecture 2 – Chapter 21. Variation in nature.
Lecture 3 – Chapter 21. Agents of microevolution.
Lecture 4 – Chapter 22. Species and reproductive isolation.
Lecture 5 – Chapter 22. Geography and genetics of speciation.
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Lecture 6 – Chapter 23. Interpreting evolutionary lineages from the fossil
record.
Lecture 7 – Chapter 23. Biogeography and the history of the Earth and life.
Lecture 8 – Chapter 24. Reconstructing the “Tree of Life”.
EVOLUTION: STUDY OBJECTIVES
This module will enable you to:
1. Use the handbook effectively as a reference guide.
2. Understand and explain the working and importance of evolution.
3. Think about the natural world from an evolutionary perspective.
4. Discuss the relationship between the various subsections of evolution.
5. Distinguish between hypothesis and theory.
6. Considerably extend your vocabulary of scientific terms.
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