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STUDY GUIDE: UNIT I – HISTORY and APPROACHES Terms & Concepts 1. empiricism 2. structuralism 3. functionalism 4. experimental psychology 5. behaviorism 6. humanistic psychology 7. cognitive neuroscience 8. psychology 9. nature-nurture issue 10. natural selection 11. levels of analysis 12. biopsychosocial approach 13. behavioral psychology 14. biological psychology 15. cognitive psychology 16. evolutionary psychology 17. psychodynamic psychology 18. social-cultural psychology 19. psychometrics 20. basic research 21. developmental psychology 22. educational psychology 23. personality psychology 24. social psychology 25. applied research 26. industrial-organizational psychology 27. human factors psychology 28. counseling psychology 29. clinical psychology 30. psychiatry 31. positive psychology 32. community psychology 33. testing effect 34. SQ3R Module 1 1-1 Prescientific Psychology Ancient philosophers & enlightenment philosophers Empiricism 1-2 Psychological Science is Born Who was Wilhelm Wundt and what type of experimental studies did he conduct? Who was G. Stanley Hall? What is structuralism? Who introduced it? What is introspection? Who wrote the first psychology textbook? When? Who was the first female president of the APA? (What is the APA?) Who was the first female to earn a psychology PhD? 1-3 Psychological Science Develops Who was Sigmund Freud? Which psychological perspective is he associated with? Who were Watson and Skinner? Which psychological perspective are they associated with? Who were Maslow and Rogers? Which psychological perspective are they associated with? Module 2 2-1 Psychology’s Biggest Question What is psychology’s biggest question? Who was Charles Darwin? What does he have to do with psychology? 2-2 Psychology’s Three Main Levels of Analysis What are psychology’s 3 main levels of analysis? Be able to apply each to real-world scenarios. What is the humanist perspective? How does this perspective explain human thought and behavior? Be able to apply this perspective to realworld scenarios. What is the psychoanalytic/psychodynamic perspective? How does this perspective explain human thought and behavior? Be able to apply this perspective to real-world scenarios. What is the biological/neuroscience perspective? How does this perspective explain human thought and behavior? Be able to apply this perspective to real-world scenarios. What is the evolutionary perspective? How does this perspective explain human thought and behavior? Be able to apply this perspective to real-world scenarios. What is the behavioral perspective? How does this perspective explain human thought and behavior? Be able to apply this perspective to realworld scenarios. What is the cognitive perspective? How does this perspective explain human thought and behavior? Be able to apply this perspective to realworld scenarios. What is the social-cultural/sociocultural perspective? How does this perspective explain human thought and behavior? Be able to apply this perspective to real-world scenarios. What is the biopsychosocial approach? 2-3 Psychology’s Main Subfields and Module 3 What is psychometrics? What are the subfields of research psychology? What does a biological psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What does a developmental psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What does an educational psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What does a personality psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What does a social psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What are the subfields of applied psychology? What does an industrial/organizational psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What does a human factors psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What does a clinical psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What does a counseling psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What is a psychiatrist? How does this profession differ from psychology? What does a community psychologist do? Be able to apply this field to real-world scenarios. What is positive psychology? What is the SQ3R method? STUDY GUIDE: UNIT II – RESEARCH METHODS Terms & Concepts 35. hindsight bias 36. critical thinking 37. theory 38. hypothesis 39. operational definition 40. replication 41. case study 42. naturalistic observation 43. survey 44. sampling bias 45. population 46. random sample 47. correlation 48. correlation coefficient 49. scatterplot 50. illusory correlation 51. experiment 52. experimental group 53. control group 54. random assignment 55. double-blind procedure 56. placebo effect 57. independent variable 58. confounding variable 59. dependent variable 60. validity 61. descriptive statistics 62. histogram 63. mode 64. mean 65. median 66. skewed distribution 67. range 68. standard deviation 69. normal curve 70. inferential statistics 71. statistical significance 72. culture 73. informed consent 74. debriefing 53. control group 54. random assignment 55. double-blind procedure 56. placebo effect 57. independent variable 58. confounding variable 59. dependent variable 60. validity 68. standard deviation 69. normal curve 70. inferential statistics 71. statistical significance 72. culture 73. informed consent 74. debriefing Module 4 4-1 Science-based answers vs. intuition and common sense Why aren’t intuition and common sense enough to provide information about people’s thoughts and behaviors? What are hindsight and overconfidence? 4-2 Scientific attitude and critical thinking What are 3 main components of the scientific attitude? Who is James Randi? What is critical thinking? Module 5 5-1 Science-based answers vs. intuition and common sense How do theories advance psychological science? What is the scientific method? Why do psychologists use it? What are operational definitions? What role do they play in psychological experimentation? What is replication? Why is it important in psychological research? 5-2 How do psychologists observe and describe behavior? What are the three descriptive methods used by psychologists? Be able to define and provide examples of each. How can wording affect survey results? What is a random sample? Why is it important in psychological research? Module 6 6-1 What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation? What is a scatterplot? Why is it important in psychological research? Understand and know the difference between a positive correlation, a negative correlation, and no correlation. Can correlation determine causation? 6-2 What are illusory correlations? Why do people often perceive order in random events? 6-3 How do experiments, powered by random assignment, clarify cause and effect? What role do experiments play in psychological research? What are double-blind procedures and random assignment? Why is they important in psychological research? Understand the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable, and be able to identify each in a given example. Module 7 7-1 How can we describe data with measures of central tendency and variation? What are the three measures of central tendency? What are the two measures of variation? What is a normal curve? 7-2 What principles can guide our making generalizations from samples and deciding whether differences are significant? Module 8 8-1 Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? 8-2 Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender? 8-3 Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals? 8-4 Is it ethical to experiment on people? What was the Stanford Prison Experiment? Why was it unethical? What are the APA’s guidelines for ethical research? 8-5 Is psychology free of value judgments? STUDY GUIDE: UNIT III – BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR Terms & Concepts 75. biological psychology 76. neuron 77. dendrites 78. axon 79. myelin sheath 80. action potential 81. refractory period 82. threshold 83. all-or-none response 84. synapse 85. neurotransmitters 86. reuptake 87. endorphins 88. agonist 89. antagonist 90. nervous system 91. central nervous system (CNS) 92. peripheral nervous system (PNS) 93. nerves 94. sensory (afferent) neurons 95. motor (efferent) neurons 96. interneurons 97. somatic nervous system 98. autonomic nervous system 99. sympathetic nervous system 100. parasympathetic nervous system 101. reflex 102. endocrine system 103. hormones 104. adrenal 105. pituitary gland 106. lesion 107. electroencephalogram (EEG) 108. CT (computed tomography) scan 109. PET (positron emission tomography) scan 110. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) 111. fMRI (functional MRI) 112. brainstem 113. medulla 114. thalamus 115. reticular formation 116. cerebellum 117. limbic system 118. amygdala 119. hypothalamus 120. cerebral cortex 121. glial cells (glia) 122. frontal lobe 123. parietal lobes 124. occipital lobes 125. temporal lobes 126. motor cortex 127. somatosensory cortex 128. association areas 129. plasticity 130. neurogenesis 131. corpus callosum 132. split brain 133. consciousness 134. cognitive neuroscience 135. dual processing 136. behavior genetics 137. environment 138. chromosomes 139. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 140. genes 141. genome 142. identical twins (monozygotic twins) 143. fraternal twins (dizygotic twins) 144. molecular genetics 145. heritability 146. interaction 147. epigenetics 148. evolutionary psychology 149. natural selection 150. mutation Module 9 9-1: What is biological psychology & what do biological psychologists study? 9-2: What are neurons, and how do they transmit information? Parts of neuron Action potential 9-3: How do nerve cells communicate with other nerve cells? What is a synapse? What is reuptake? How is a flushing toilet like a neuron firing? 9-4: How do neurotransmitters influence behavior, and how do drugs and other chemicals effect neurotransmitters? What is an agonist and an antagonist? Module 10 10-1: What are the functions of the nervous system’s main divisions? Central Nervous System Peripheral Nervous System & its divisions 10-2: How does the endocrine system transmit its messages? Hormones Pituitary Gland Module 11 11-1: How do neuroscientists study the brain’s connections to behavior and mind? EEG, CT, PET, MRI, fMRI 11-2: What are the functions of important lower-level brain structures? Brainstem & its parts Cerebellum 11-3: What are the limbic system’s structures and functions? Amygdala, hypothalamus Module 12 12-1: What are the functions served by the various cerebral cortex regions? Brain parts & regions Motor cortex & sensory cortex Phineas Gage & association areas 12-2: To what extent can a damaged brain reorganize itself? Brain plasticity neurogenesis Module 13 13-1: What do split brains reveal about functions of our two brain hemispheres? Corpus callosum & split brains Right-left differences in the intact brain 13-2: The biology of Consciousness Cognitive neuroscience Dual processing Module 14 14-1: What are genes and how do behavior genetics explain our individual differences? Behavior Genetics DNA, genes, genomes Twin & adoption studies 14-2: Molecular genetics 14-3: What is hereditability and how does it relate to individuals and groups? Nature & nurture 14-3: What is the promise of molecular genetics research? 14-4: How do heredity & environment work together? Interaction epigenetics Module 15 15-1: How do evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain behavior tendencies? Natural selection & adaptation 15-2: How might an evolutionary psychologist explain gender differences in sexuality and mating preferences? Natural selection & mating preferences 15-3: Biopsychosocial approach to individual development STUDY GUIDE: UNIT IV – SENSATION and PERCEPTION Terms & Concepts 151. sensation 152. perception 153. bottom-up processing 154. top-down processing 155. selective attention 156. inattentional blindness 157. change blindness 158. transduction 159. psychophysics 160. absolute threshold 161. signal-detection theory 162. subliminal 163. priming 164. difference threshold 165. Weber’s law 166. sensory adaptation 167. perceptual set 168. extrasensory perception (ESP) 169. parapsychology 170. wavelength 171. hue 172. intensity 173. pupil 174. iris 175. lens 176. retina 177. accommodation 178. rods 179. cones 180. optic nerve 181. blind spot 182. fovea 183. feature detectors 184. parallel processing 185. Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory 186. opponent-process theory 187. gestalt 188. figure-ground 189. grouping 190. depth perception 191. visual cliff 192. binocular cue 193. retinal disparity 194. monocular cue 195. phi phenomenon 196. perceptual constancy 197. color constancy 198. perceptual adaptation 199. audition 200. frequency 201. pitch 202. middle ear 203. cochlea 204. inner ear 205. sensorineural hearing loss 206. conduction hearing loss 207. cochlear implant 208. place theory 209. frequency theory 210. gate-control theory 211. kinesthesis 212. vestibular sense 213. sensory interaction 214. embodied cognition Module 16 16-1: What are sensation and perception? What do we mean by bottom-up and top-down processing? 16-2: How much information do we consciously attend to at once? Selective attention Selective inattention Multitasking vs. serial tasking 16-3: What 3 steps are basic to all our sensory systems? 16-4: What are absolute and difference thresholds, and do stimuli below the absolute threshold have any influence? Signal detection theory Subliminal stimuli Weber’s Law 16-5: What is the function of sensory adaptation? Sensory adaptation Selective attention Module 17 17-1: How do our expectations, contexts, and emotions influence our perceptions? Perceptual set Context effects Cultural context 17-2: What are the claims of ESP, and what have most research psychologists concluded after putting these claims to the test? Module 18 18-1: What is the energy that we see as visible light? Transduction Wavelength Intensity Diagram of eye & retina Rods & cones; fovea 18-2: How do the eye and the brain process visual information? Feature detectors Parallel processing/Visual information processing 18-3: What theories help us understand color vision? Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory Color blindness & opponent colors Module 19 19-1: How did the Gestalt psychologists understand perceptual organization, and how do figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions? Form perception & grouping 19-2: How do we see the world in three dimensions and perceive motion? Depth perception & visual cliff Binocular & monocular cues Phi phenomenon 19-3: How do perceptual constancies help us organize our sensations into meaningful perceptions? Perceptual constancy, color constancy, size-distance relationship, lightness constancy Ames room 19-4: What does research on sensory restriction and restored vision reveal about the effects of experience? Perceptual interpretation (Molyneux & Locke) Perceptual adaptation Module 20 20-1: What are the characteristics of air pressure waves that we hear as sound, and how does the ear transform sound energy into neural messages? Frequency & intensity Middle ear, cochlea, inner ear Conduction hearing loss Sensorineural hearing loss Cochlear implants – why the controversy? Intensity/loudness 20-2: What theories help us understand pitch perception? Frequency theory Place theory 20-3: How do we locate sounds? Module 21 21-1: How do we sense touch? 21-2: How can we best understand and control pain? Gate control theory & biopsychosocial influences Pain control 21-3: How do we experience taste and smell? 21-4: How do we sense our body’s position and movement? Kinesthesis & vestibular sense 21-5: How do our senses interact? Sensory interaction Embodied cognition STUDY GUIDE: UNIT V – STATES of CONSCIOUSNESS Terms & Concepts 215. consciousness 216. hypnosis 217. posthypnotic suggestion 218. dissociation 219. circadian rhythm 220. REM sleep 221. alpha waves 222. sleep 223. hallucinations 224. delta waves 225. NREM sleep 226. suprachiasmatic nucleus 227. insomnia 228. narcolepsy 229. sleep apnea 230. night terrors 231. dream 232. manifest content 233. latent content 234. REM rebound 235. substance use disorder 236. psychoactive drug 237. tolerance 238. addiction 239. withdrawal 240. depressants 241. alcohol use disorder 242. barbiturates 243. opiates 244. stimulants 245. amphetamines 246. nicotine 247. cocaine 248. methamphetamine 249. Ecstasy (MDMA) 250. hallucinogens 251. LSD 252. near-death experience 253. THC Module 22 22-1: What is the place of consciousness in psychology’s history? Consciousness, dual processing, selective attention States of consciousness (Figure 22.1) 22-2: What is hypnosis, and what powers does a hypnotist have over a hypnotized subject? FAQs about hypnosis Posthypnotic suggestions 22-3: Is hypnosis an extension of normal consciousness or an altered state? Divided-consciousness theory Social influence theory Module 23 23-1: How do our biological rhythms influence our daily functioning? Circadian rhythm 23-2: What is the biological rhythm of our sleeping and dreaming stages? Sleep stages REM sleep 23-3: How do biology and environment interact in our sleep patterns? SCN Genetic, cultural, and environmental influences on sleep How much sleep do you need? 23-4: What are sleep’s functions? 5 reasons why sleep may have evolved Module 24 24-1: How does sleep loss affect us, and what are the major sleep disorders? Effects of sleep loss Insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea Night terrors, sleepwalking, sleep talking 24-2: What do we dream? 24-3: What are the functions of dreams? Manifest content Latent content 5 dream theories Module 25 25-1: What are substance use disorders, and what role do tolerance, withdrawal, and addiction play in these disorders? Substance use disorder (Table 25.1) Psychoactive drugs Tolerance, addiction, withdrawal 25-2: What are depressants, and what are their effects? Alcohol Barbiturates Opiates 25-3: What are stimulants, and what are their effects? Caffeine Nicotine Cocaine Ecstasy Amphetamines Methamphetamines 25-4: What are hallucinogens, and what are their effects? LSD marijuana THC STUDY GUIDE: UNIT VI – LEARNING Terms & Concepts 254. learning 255. habituation 256. associative learning 257. stimulus 258. cognitive learning 259. classical conditioning 260. behaviorism 261. neutral stimulus 262. unconditioned response 263. unconditioned stimulus 264. conditioned response 265. conditioned stimulus 266. acquisition 267. higher-order conditioning 268. extinction 269. spontaneous recovery 270. generalization 271. discrimination 272. operant conditioning 273. law of effect 274. operant chamber 275. reinforcement 276. shaping 277. discriminative stimulus 278. positive reinforcement 279. negative reinforcement 280. primary reinforce 281. conditioned reinforce 282. reinforcement schedule 283. continuous reinforcement 284. partial (intermittent) reinforcement 285. fixed-ratio schedule 286. variable-ratio schedule 287. fixed-interval schedule 288. variable-interval schedule 289. punishment 290. biofeedback 291. respondent behavior 292. operant behavior 293. cognitive map 294. latent learning 295. insight 296. intrinsic motivation 297. extrinsic motivation 298. coping 299. problem-focused coping 300. emotion-focused learning 301. learned helplessness 302. external locus of control 303. internal locus of control 304. self-control 305. observational learning 306. modeling 307. mirror neurons 308. prosocial behavior Module 26 26-1: What is learning and what are some basic forms of learning? Learning Associative learning 26-2: What is classical conditioning, and what was behaviorism’s view of learning? Ivan Pavlov Classical conditioning – UR, US, NS, CS, CR 26-3: In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination? 26-4: Pavlov’s Legacy John Watson Little Albert experiment Module 27 27-1: What is operant conditioning, and how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped? B.F. Skinner Operant chamber/Skinner box Shaping 27-2: What are the basic types of reinforcers? Positive & negative Primary & conditioned Delayed & immediate 27-3: How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior? Continuous & partial schedules Ratio schedules Interval schedules 27-4: How does punishment affect behavior? Positive & negative punishment Negative effects 27-5: Skinner’s Legacy Module 28 28-1: How might operant conditioning principles be applied at school, work, home, and for elf-improvement? 28-2: How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning? Table 28.1 Module 29 29-1: How do biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning? 29-2: How do cognitive processes affect operant conditioning? Cognitive maps Latent learning Intrinsic & extrinsic motivation 29-3: In what two ways do people learn to cope with personal problems? Problem-focused coping Emotion-focused coping 29-4: How does a perceived lack of control affect other people’s behavior and health? Learned helplessness External and internal locus of control Self-control Module 30 30-1: What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons? Mirror neurons Bandura’s Bobo doll study Television Violence 30-2: What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling? Prosocial modeling Antisocial effects (TV & video games) Violence-viewing effect Media violence - Imitation & desensitization STUDY GUIDE: UNIT VII – COGNITION Terms & Concepts 309. memory 310. encoding 311. storage 312. retrieval 313. parallel processing 314. sensory memory 315. short-term memory 316. long-term memory 317. working memory 318. explicit memory 319. effortful processing 320. autonomic processing 321. implicit memory 322. iconic memory 323. echoic memory 324. chunking 325. mnemonics 326. spacing effect 327. testing effect 328. shallow processing 329. deep processing 330. hippocampus 331. flashbulb memory 332. long-term potentiation 333. recall 334. recognition 335. relearning 336. priming 337. mood-congruent memory 338. serial position effect 339. anterograde amnesia 340. retrograde amnesia 341. proactive interference 342. retroactive interference 343. repression 344. misinformation effect 345. source amnesia 346. déjà vu 347. cognition 348. concept 349. prototype 350. creativity 351. convergent thinking 352. divergent thinking 353. algorithm 354. heuristic 355. insight 356. confirmation bias 357. mental set 358. intuition 359. representativeness heuristic 360. availability heuristic 361. overconfidence 362. belief perseverance 363. framing 364. language 365. phoneme 366. morpheme 367. grammar 368. babbling stage 369. one-word stage 370. two-word stage 371. telegraphic speech 372. 373. 374. 375. aphasia Broca’s area Wernicke’s area linguistic determinism Module 31 31-1: Define memory 31-2: How do psychologists describe the human memory system? Encoding, storage, retrieval 31-3: What information do we encode automatically? What information do we encode effortfully? Explicit & implicit memories 31-4: Automatic processing & implicit memories Time, space, frequency 31-5: Sensory memory Iconic, echoic, hepatic 31-6: Capacity of short term and working memory 7 (+/-2) 31-7: What effortful processing methods aid in forming memories? Semantic, visual, and acoustic encoding Mnemonics, chunking, hierarchies Spacing effect, testing effect 31-8: Levels of processing? Shallow & deep processing Module 32 32-1: Long-term memory capacity & storage limitless 32-2: Frontal lobes & hippocampus 32-3: Cerebellum & basal ganglia 32-4: Amygdala, emotions & memory flashbulb memories 32-5: Synaptic changes Long-term potentiation 32-6: Measuring retention Recognition, recall, relearning 32-7: How do external contexts and internal emotions influence memory retrieval? Retrieval cues, priming Context effects, moods and memories Serial position effect Module 33 33-1: Why do we forget? Encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure Anterograde amnesia & retrograde amnesia Proactive interference & retroactive interference Motivated forgetting, repression (Freud) 33-2: How do misinformation, imagination, and source amnesia influence our memory construction? Memory construction, misinformation effect, eyewitness testimony Source amnesia, déjà vu 33-3: Children’s Eyewitness recall Memories of abuse Leading psychological associations’ consensus on childhood abuse 33-4: How can an understanding of memory contribute to more effective study techniques? Module 34 34-1: What is cognition and what are the functions of concepts? Cognition, concepts, prototypes 34-2: Creativity Convergent & divergent thinking 5 components of creativity Module 35 35-1: Problem solving strategies & obstacles Trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, insight Confirmation bias, mental set 35-2: Forming good and bad decisions and judgments Intuition Representative heuristics, availability heuristics Overconfidence, belief perseverance Framing 35-3: How do smart thinkers use intuition? Module 36 36-1: What are the structural components of a language? Phonemes, morphemes, grammar 36-2: What are the milestones in language development? Babbling stage, one-word stage, two-word stage 36-3: How do we learn language? Operant learning, inborn universal grammar Critical period 36-4: What brain areas are involved in language processing? Aphasia, Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area 36-5: What is the relationship between language and thinking? Linguistic determinism, word power Thinking in images STUDY GUIDE: UNIT VIII – MOTIVATION & EMOTION Terms & Concepts 376. motivation 377. instinct 378. drive-reduction theory 379. homeostasis 380. incentive 381. Yerkes-Dodson law 382. hierarchy of needs 383. glucose 384. set point 385. basal metabolic rate 386. sexual response cycle 387. refractory period 388. sexual dysfunction 389. estrogens 390. testosterone 391. emotion 392. James-Lange theory 393. Cannon-Bard theory 394. two-factor theory 395. polygraph 396. facial feedback effect 397. health psychology 398. stress 399. general adaptation syndrome 400. tend and befriend response 401. psychophysiological illness 402. psychoneuroimmunology 403. lymphocytes 404. coronary heart disease 405. Type A 406. Type B Module 37 37-1: From what perspectives do psychologists view motivated behavior? Definition of motivation Instinct, drive-reduction, optimum arousal, hierarchy of needs Module 38 38-1: What physiological factors produce hunger? Hunger pangs, appetite hormones, hypothalamus, set point 38-2: What cultural and situational factors influence hunger? Memory, taste preferences, culture The ecology of eating 38-3: What factors predispose some people to become and remain obese? Set point & metabolism Genetic factors (twin and adoption studies) Food & activity factors Module 39 39-1: What is the human sexual response cycle, and what dysfunctions disrupt it? Masters & Johnson (4 stages) Sexual dysfunctions & paraphilia 39-2: How do hormones, and external and internal stimuli, influence human sexual motivation? Estrogen and testosterone External stimuli - Erotic material & fantasies Imagined stimuli Module 40 40-1: What evidence points to our human need to belong? The benefits of belonging The pain of being shut out 40-2: How does social networking influence us? Social isolation, healthy disclosure, narcissism Module 41 41-1: How do arousal and expressive behaviors interact in emotion? James-Lange, Cannon-Bard 41-2: To experience emotions must we consciously interpret and label them? Two-factor theory Zajonc, LeDoux, Lazarus 41-3: What is the link between arousal and the autonomic nervous system? 41-4: Do different emotions activate different physiological and brain-pattern responses? 41-5: How effective are polygraphs in using body states to detect lies? Module 42 42-1: How do we communicate nonverbally? How do the genders differ in this capacity? Universal nonverbal language Paul Ekman Gender, emotion, and nonverbal behavior 42-2: How are nonverbal expressions of emotion understood within and across cultures? 42-3: How do our facial expressions influence our feelings? Facial feedback effect Module 43 43-1: Identify events that provoke stress responses, and describe how we respond and adapt to stress. Catastrophes Significant life changes Daily hassles Stress response system – general adaptation syndrome, tend-and-befriend Module 44 44-1: How does stress make us more vulnerable to disease? Psychophysiological illnesses Psychoneuroimmunology Stress and disease susceptibility, AIDS, cancer 44-2: Why are some of us more prone than others to coronary heart disease? Type A vs. Type B personality Chronic stress STUDY GUIDE: UNIT IX – DEVELOPMENT Terms and Concepts 407. developmental psychology 408. zygote 409. embryo 410. fetus 411. teratogens 412. fetal alcohol syndrome 413. habituation 414. maturation 415. cognition 416. schema 417. assimilation 418. accommodation 419. sensorimotor stage 420. object permanence 421. preoperational stage 422. conservation 423. egocentrism 424. theory of mind 425. autism spectrum disorder 426. concrete operational stage 427. formal operational stage 428. stranger anxiety 429. attachment 430. critical period 431. imprinting 432. temperament 433. basic trust 434. self-concept 435. gender 436. aggression 437. gender role 438. role 439. gender identity 440. social learning theory 441. gender typing 442. transgender 443. adolescence 444. identity 445. social identity 446. intimacy 447. emerging adulthood 448. X chromosome 449. Y chromosome 450. testosterone 451. puberty 452. primary sex characteristics 453. secondary sex characteristics 454. menarche 455. AIDS 456. sexual orientation 457. menopause 458. cross-sectional study 459. longitudinal study 460. social clock Module 45 45-1: What 3 issues have engaged developmental psychologists? Nature & nurture, continuity & stages, stability & change 45-2: What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect that development? Zygote, embryo, fetus teratogens 45-3: What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants’ mental abilities? Module 46 46-1: During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop? Maturation Motor development 46-2: How does an infant’s developing brain begin processing memories? Module 47 47-1: From the perspective of Piaget and of today’s researchers, how does a child’s mid develop? Schemas Assimilation & accommodation Piaget’s stages of cognitive development Current perspectives on Piaget’s theory 47-2: How does autism spectrum disorder affect development? Module 48 48-1: How do parent-infant attachment bonds form? Origins of attachment (Harlow) 48-2: How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned? Secure attachment vs. insecure attachment 48-3: Do parental neglect, family disruption, or day care affect children’s attachments? 48-4: How does day care affect children? 48-5: How do children’s self-concepts develop? 48-6: What are 3 parenting styles, and how do children’s traits relate to them? Authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative parenting styles Module 49 49-1: What are some gender similarities and differences in aggression, social power, and social connectedness? 49-2: How do gender roles and gender typing influence gender development? Gender identity, gender typing, transgender Module 50 50-1: How do early experiences modify the brain? 50-2: In what ways do parents and peers shape children’s development? Module 51 51-1: Define adolescence, and identify the major physical changes during this period. Puberty 51-2: How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development? Kohlberg: three levels of moral thinking Moral intuition and moral action Module 52 52-1: What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence? Erickson’s stages of psychological development 52-2: How do parents and peers influence adolescents? 52-3: What is emerging adulthood? Module 53 53-1: How is our biological sex determined, and how do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent development? X & Y chromosomes Primary & secondary sexual characteristics 53-2: What are some of the ways that sexual development varies? 53-3: How can sexually transmitted infections be prevented? 53-4: What factors influence teenagers’ sexual behaviors and use of contraceptives? 53-5: What has research taught us about sexual orientation? Module 54 54-1: What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood? 54-2: How does memory change with age? 54-3: What themes and influences mark our social journey from adulthood to death? 54-4: Do self-confidence and life satisfaction vary with life stages? 54-5: A loved one’s death triggers what range of reactions? STUDY GUIDE: UNIT X – PERSONALITY Terms & Concepts 461. personality 462. free association 463. psychoanalysis 464. unconscious 465. id 466. ego 467. superego 468. psychosexual stages 469. Oedipus Complex 470. identification 471. fixation 472. defense mechanism 473. repression 474. psychodynamic theories 475. collective unconscious 476. projective test 477. Thematic Apperception Test 478. Rorschach inkblot test 479. false consensus effect 480. terror-management theory 481. humanistic theories 482. self-actualization 483. unconditional positive regard 484. self-concept 485. trait 486. personality inventory 487. MMPI 488. empirically derived test 489. social-cognitive perspective 490. behavioral approach 491. reciprocal determinism 492. positive psychology 493. self 494. spotlight effect 495. self-esteem 496. self-efficacy 497. self-serving bias 498. narcissism 499. individualism 500. collectivism Module 55 55-1: Explain how Freud’s treatment of psychological disorders led to his view of the unconscious mind. Psychoanalysis Free association, dream analysis 55-2: What was Freud’s view of personality? Id, ego, superego 55-3: What developmental stages did Freud propose? Psychosexual stages Oedipus complex identification 55-4: How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety? Repression, regression, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, denial 55-5: How do contemporary psychologists view Freud psychoanalysis? Module 56 56-1: Which of Freud’s ideas did his followers accept or reject? Adler, Horney, Jung Collective unconscious 56-2: What are projective tests, and how are they used? TAT, Rorschach 56-3: How has modern research developed our understanding of the unconscious? False consensus effect, terror-management theory Module 57 57-1: How did humanist psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality? Maslow & Rogers Self-actualization, unconditional positive regard 57-2: How did humanist psychologists assess a person’s sense of self? 57-3: How has the humanist perspective influenced psychology? What criticisms has it faced? Module 58 58-1: How do psychologists use traits to describe personality? Hans and Sybil Eysenck Factor analysis 58-2: What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools? MMPI 58-3: Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation? The Big Five 58-4: Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations? Module 59 59-1: Who first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, and how do social-cognitive theorists view personality development? Albert Bandura Social-cognitive perspective, behavioral approach Reciprocal determinism Optimism vs. pessimism 59-2: How do social-cognitive researchers explore behavior, and what criticism have they faced? 59-3: Why has psychology generated so much research on the self? How important is self-esteem to psychology and to human well-being? Spotlight effect Self-esteem 59-4: What evidence reveals self-serving bias, and how do defensive and secure self-esteem differ? Self-serving bias Narcissism 59-5: How do individualist and collectivist cultures influence people? Individualism Collectivist STUDY GUIDE: UNIT XI – TESTING and INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Terms and Concepts: 501. intelligence 502. intelligence test 503. general intelligence 504. factor analysis 505. savant syndrome 506. grit 507. emotional intelligence 508. mental age 509. Stanford-Binet 510. intelligence quotient (IQ) 511. achievement test 512. aptitude test 513. WAIS 514. standardization 515. normal curve 516. reliability 517. validity 518. content validity 519. predictive validity 520. cohort 521. crystallized intelligence 522. fluid intelligence 523. intellectual disability 524. Down syndrome 525. heritability 526. stereotype threat Module 60 60-1: How is Intelligence defined? 60-2: What argues for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability? General intelligence (g) Charles Spearman 60-3: How do Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories of multiple intelligences differ? Gardner’s 8 intelligences Sternberg’s 3 intelligences Savant syndrome Multiple intelligences vs. general intelligence 60-4: What makes up emotional intelligence? 4 Components Criticisms 60-5: To what extent is intelligence related to brain anatomy? 60-6: To what extent is intelligence related to neural processing speed? Module 61 61-1: When and why were intelligence tests created? Alfred Binet Lewis Turman Stanford-Binet IQ / William Stern 61-2: What’s the difference between aptitude and achievement tests, and how can we develop and evaluate them? WAIS / WISC Achievement vs. aptitude tests 61-3: What are standardization & the normal curve? 61-4: What are reliability and validity? Module 62 62-1: How stable are intelligence scores over the life span? Crystallized and fluid intelligence Stability over the life span 62-2: What are the traits of those at the low and high intelligence extremes? High intelligence Intellectual disability Down syndrome Module 63 63-1: Discuss the evidence for a genetic influence on intelligence, and explain what is meant by heritability. Twin and adoption studies Heritability 63-2: What does evidence reveal about environmental influences on intelligence? Early environmental influences Schooling & intelligence Module 64 64-1: How and why do gender groups differ in mental ability scores? 64-2: How and why do racial & ethnic groups differ in mental ability scores? 64-3: Are intelligence tests inappropriately biased? Two meanings of bias Stereotype threat STUDY GUIDE: UNIT XII – ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR Terms & Concepts 527. psychological disorder 528. ADHD 529. medical model 530. DSM-5 531. anxiety disorders 532. generalized anxiety disorder 533. panic disorder 534. phobia 535. social anxiety disorder 536. Agoraphobia 537. OCD 538. PTSD 539. posttraumatic growth 540. mood disorders 541. major depressive disorder 542. mania 543. bipolar disorder 544. rumination 545. schizophrenia 546. psychosis 547. delusions 548. hallucinations 549. somatic symptom disorder 550. conversion disorder 551. illness anxiety disorder 552. dissociative disorders 553. dissociative identity disorder 554. anorexia nervosa 555. bulimia nervosa 556. binge-eating disorder 557. personality disorder 558. antisocial personality disorder Module 65 65-1: How should we draw the line between normality and disorder? deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional 65-2: Why is there controversy over ADHD? 65-3: How do the medical model & the biopsychosocial approach help us understand psychological disorders? 65-4: How and why do clinicians classify psychological disorders? DSM-5 65-5: Why do some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels? 65-6: How many people suffer, or have suffered, from a psychological disorder? America & globally Risk factors & protective factors Module 66 66-1: What are anxiety disorders? Generalized anxiety disorder - symptoms Panic disorder - symptoms Phobias - symptoms 66-2: What is obsessive-compulsive disorder? Symptoms & common obsessions and compulsions among children 66-3: What is posttraumatic stress disorder? Symptoms 66-4: How do the learning and biological perspectives explain anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD? The learning perspective – classical & operant conditioning, observational learning The biological perspective – natural selection, genes, the brain Module 67 67-1: What are mood disorders? Major depressive disorder – symptoms & diagnosis Bipolar disorder – symptoms & diagnosis 67-2: How do the biological and social-cognitive perspectives explain mood disorders? Biological perspective Social-cognitive perspective Depression cycle 67-3: What factors affect suicide and self-injury? Module 68 68-1: What patterns of thinking, perceiving, feeling, and behaving characterize schizophrenia? Psychosis Delusions Hallucinations Selective attention Catatonia Flat affect 68-2: How do chronic and acute schizophrenia differ? Positive symptoms Negative symptoms 68-3: How do brain abnormalities and viral infections help explain schizophrenia? Dopamine, abnormal brain activity, abnormal brain morphology, prenatal viral infection 68-4: Are there genetic influences on schizophrenia? What factors may be early warning signs in children? Genetic factors Psychological factors Module 69 69-1: What are somatic symptom and related disorders? Somatic symptom disorders Conversion disorders Illness anxiety disorder 69-2: What are dissociative disorders, and why are they controversial? Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) 69-3: How do anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder demonstrate the influence of psychological and genetic forces? anorexia nervosa bulimia nervosa binge-eating disorder 69-4: What are the three clusters of personality disorders? What behaviors and brain activity characterize the Avoidant personality disorder Schizoid personality disorder Histrionic personality disorder Narcissistic personality disorder Antisocial personality disorder (psychopath, sociopath) antisocial personality? STUDY GUIDE: UNIT XIII – TREATMENT of ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR Terms & Concepts 559. psychotherapy 560. biomedical therapy 561. eclectic approach 562. psychoanalysis 563. resistance 564. interpretation 565. transference 566. psychodynamic therapy 567. insight therapies 568. client-centered therapies 569. active listening 570. unconditional positive regard 571. behavior therapy 572. counterconditioning 573. exposure therapies 574. systematic desensitization 575. virtual reality exposure therapy 576. aversive conditioning 577. token economy 578. cognitive therapy 579. rational-emotive behavior therapy 580. cognitive-behavioral therapy 581. group therapy 582. family therapy 583. regression toward the mean 584. meta-analysis 585. evidence-based practice 586. therapeutic alliance 587. resilience 588. Psychopharmacology 589. antipsychotic drugs 590. antianxiety drugs 591. antidepressant drugs 592. electroconvulsive therapy 593. repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation 594. psychosurgery 595. lobotomy Module 70 70-1: How do psychotherapy, biomedical therapy, and an eclectic approach to therapy differ? 70-2: What are the goals of psychoanalysis, and how have they been adapted in psychodynamic therapy? Psychoanalysis & Sigmund Freud 70-3: What are the basic themes of humanistic therapy? What are the specific goals and techniques of Rogers’ client-centered approach? Insight therapies Active listening, unconditional positive regard Module 71 71-1: How does the basic assumption of behavior therapy differ from those of psychodynamic and humanistic therapies? What techniques are used in exposure therapies and aversive conditioning? Counter-conditioning, exposure therapy, systematic desensitization, virtual reality exposure therapy Aversive conditioning 71-2: What is the main premise of therapy based on operant conditioning principles, and what are the views of its proponents and critics? Operant conditioning Token economy 71-3: What are the goals and techniques of cognitive therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy? Albert Ellis, rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) Aaron Beck Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) 71-4: What are the aims and benefits of group and family therapy? Module 72 72-1: Does psychotherapy work? Who decides? Client’s perceptions Clinician’s perceptions Outcome research 72-2: Are some therapies more effective than others for specific disorders? 72-3: How do alternative therapies fare under scientific scrutiny? EMDR Light-exposure therapy 72-4: What are three elements shared by all forms of psychotherapy? 72-5: How do culture, gender, and values influence the therapist-client relationship? Clinical psychologists Clinical or Psychiatric Social Worker Counselors Psychiatrists 72-6: What should a person look for when selecting a therapist? 72-7: What is the rationale for preventative mental health programs? Module 73 73-1: What are the drug therapies? How do double-blind studies help researchers evaluate a drug’s effectiveness? Anti-psychotic drugs Antianxiety drugs Antidepressants Mood stabilizing medications 73-2: How are brain-stimulation and psychosurgery used in treating specific disorders? Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) Deep-brain stimulation Psychosurgery, lobotomy 73-3: How, by caring of themselves with a healthy lifestyle, might people find some relief from depression, and how does this reflect our being biopsychosocial systems? STUDY GUIDE: STUDY GUIDE: UNIT 14 – SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 596. social psychology 597. attribution theory 598. fundamental attribution error 599. attitude 600. peripheral route persuasion 601. central route persuasion 602. foot-in-the-door phenomenon 603. role 604. cognitive dissonance theory 605. conformity 606. normative social influence 607. informational social influence 608. social facilitation 609. social loafing 610. deindividuation 611. group polarization 612. groupthink 613. culture 614. norm 615. prejudice 616. stereotype 617. discrimination 618. just-world phenomenon 619. ingroup 620. outgroup 621. ingroup bias 622. scapegoat theory 623. other-race effect 624. aggression 625. frustration-aggression principle 626. social script 627. mere exposure effect 628. passionate love 629. companionate love 630. equity 631. self-disclosure 632. altruism 633. bystander effect 634. social exchange theory 635. reciprocity norm 636. social responsibility norm 637. conflict 638. social trap 639. mirror-image perceptions 640. self-fulfilling prophecy 641. superordinate goals 642. GRIT Module 74 74-1: What do social psychologist study? How do we tend to explain others’ behavior and our own? Social psychology Attribution theory; fundamental attribution error 74-2: Does what we think affect what we do, or does what we do affect what we think? Attitudes & actions Peripheral route to persuasion & central route to persuasion; foot-in-the-door phenomenon Role playing; cognitive dissonance theory Stanford Prison Study (P. Zimbardo) Module 75 75-1: What is automatic mimicry, and how do conformity experiments reveal the power of social influence? Conformity & social norms Acsh Conformity Study Normative social influence & informational social influence 75-2: What do Milgram’s obedience experiments teach us about the power of social influence? Milgram Obedience Study Individual Resistance Module 76 76-1: How is our behavior affected by the presence of others? Social facilitation Social loafing Deindividuation 76-2: What are group polarization and groupthink, and how much power do we have as individuals? Group polarization Groupthink Power of individuals 76-3: How do cultural norms affect our behavior? Variations across cultures Variations over time Module 77 77-1: What is prejudice? What are its social and emotional roots? 3 components of prejudice Stereotypes & discrimination Race Gender Ingroup & outgroup; ingroup bias Scapegoat theory 77-2: What are the cognitive roots of prejudice? Forming categories Remembering vivid cases Believing the world is just Module 78 78-1: How does psychology’s definition of aggression differ from everyday usage? What biological factors make us more prone to hurt one another? Genetic Influences Neural Influences Biochemical Influences 78-2: What psychological and social-cultural factors may trigger aggressive behavior? dealing with aversive events learning aggression is rewarding observing models of aggression acquiring social scripts violent media & video games Module 79 79-1: Why do we befriend or fall in love with some people but not others? Proximity; mere exposure effect Physical attractiveness Similarity 79-2: How does romantic love typically change as time passes? Romantic love vs. companionate love Module 80 80-1: When are we most –and least- likely to help? Altruism Bystander effect 80-2: How do social exchange theory and social norms explain helping behavior? Social norms Reciprocity norm Social-responsibility norm 80-3: How do social traps and mirror-image perceptions fuel social conflict? Conflict Social traps Mirror-image perceptions Self-fulfilling prophecies 80-4: How can we transform feelings of prejudice, aggression, and conflict into attitudes that promote peace? Superordinate goals Communication GRIT