Download Mod 01-Lecture - Phoenix Military Academy

Module 1: Introduction, History, Perspectives and Careers

What is the definition of “psychology”?
Psychology = the scientific study of (human) mental processes and behavior
Scientific method = a method of learning about the world through the application of
critical thinking & tools such as observation, experimentation & statistical analysis
*5S Scientific study involves systematic collection & examination of data (empirical
evidence) to support or disprove hypotheses/predictions rather than depending on common sense.
Since the beginning, man has tried to understand human nature. But only since the
1800’s have we attempted to study human beings scientifically, rather than philosophically. The
core of psychology is the use of the scientific method to test ideas. Psychology is a relatively
young science.
Monism = mind & body as different aspects of the same thing; dualism = mind & body as
different things that interact
We’ll talk more about the scientific process next chapter
Mental processes = thoughts, feelings, dreams, etc., that are not directly observable;
Behavior = our observable actions
Historically, psychology was initially defined as the “science of mental life” because it
studied internal, subjective experience, i.e., our sensations, thoughts, feelings, dreams and
beliefs.
In the 1920s-1960s, American psychologists like John Watson redefined psychology as
the “science of observable behavior”. They insisted psychology must be based on what can be
observed and measured, not conjectured and guessed at.
Today, psychology includes both, thus it the science of mental processes and behavior.
So another definition of psychology might be = the scientific study of how people think,
feel and behave.

Who are some of the important figures and theories in psychology’s early history?
[Charles Darwin: his key contribution was the notion that if we studied the less complex
behavior of animals, we could apply what we learned to human behavior. We’ll talk more of
Darwin when we study evolutionary psychology.]
Wilhelm Wundt: generally considered the father/founder of psychology because he
created the first laboratory for studying humans in Leipzig, Germany. He tried to scientifically
study consciousness, specifically our conscious experiences of sensation.
G Stanley Hall set up first psychology lab in the US and founded the American
Psychological Association, becoming its first president.
E. B. Titchener: the founder of structuralism, which analyzes the basic elements of
thoughts and sensations, i.e., their intensity, clarity and quality in attempt to determine the basic
structure of conscious experience.
*Wundt, Hall & Titchener were all structuralists, trying to analyze the basic elements of
consciousness using introspection, i.e., inward looking
Gestalt psychology: asserts that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; it
emphasizes out tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes, i.e., notes of
music into a coherent song. They disagreed with behaviorist stance of ignoring internal
processes.
Sigmund Freud: founder of psychoanalysis, one of the first comprehensive theories of
personality. He emphasized the importance of unconscious conflicts and drives and early
childhood development upon personality. Although many of his ideas are considered outdated,
he is still one of the most famous and influential figures in psychology.
William James: the first American psychologist and writer of the first psychology
textbook. WJ founded functionalism which emphasizes the functions of consciousness,
especially in terms of how it helps us adapt to our environment. Functionalists were more
interested in explaining behavior and applying psychological principals to practical problems.
John B. Watson: the father of behaviorism, the dominant perspective of the 20th century
which believes psychology should only study observable, measurable behavior.

Who are some of the important early figures in psychology in America?
G. Stanley Hall: a student of Wundt, the first American man to earn a PhD. He founded
the APA and was its first president. He also opened the 1st American psychological laboratory
Mary Whiton Calkins: the first woman to complete the requirements for a PhD (though
Harvard refused to grant it) and was the APA’s first women president
Margaret Floy Washburn: 1st woman to receive a PhD in psychology & wrote the 1st
book on comparative psychology (animals and humans)
Frances Cecil Sumner: the first African-American man to receive a PhD
Inez Beverly Prosser: the 1st African American woman to receive a PhD

What are the 6 basic present-day approaches or perspectives for psychology?
Psychological perspectives or schools of thought or psychological approaches each refer
to a particular collection of ideas that attempt to explain human behavior: biological or
biopsychological; cognitive, humanistic, behavioral, sociocultural and psychodynamic
“Cognitive” approach = emphasizes the importance of our mental processes, i.e., our
thoughts on human development. The cognitive approach focuses on how we receive, interpret
and apply information. It focuses on the internal conversations we have going on in our heads.
The basic premise is that what we think greatly influences how feel and how we behave (“Nice
shirt” example). Thinking, reasoning & language are keys to understanding human behavior.
. “Biological” or “biopsychological” approach = views behavior as strongly influenced
by physiology, i.e., the biochemistry of our body.
Examples: physiological effects of stress re: CHD or antibody levels; low serotonin
levels that correlate with depression, etc.,
“Sociocultural” approach = views behavior as strongly influenced by the rules and
expectations of specific social groups or cultures we’re part of. The focus here is on how the
particular racial, ethnic and religious groups we belong to shape us; and how our behavior
changes depending on the particular social situation we find ourselves in. Examples:
individualism vs. collectivism, bystander effect
“Psychoanalytic” (or psychodynamic) approach = emphasizes the importance of
unconscious conflicts and drives and early childhood development upon personality. This is
Freud’s theory of personality. He believed we actively repress, i.e., ban from consciousness
thoughts and feelings, especially sexual and aggressive ones, that make us uncomfortable.
Drives and conflicts of that we bury in our unconsciousness during childhood continue to
influence our behavior as adults. Examples: if you didn’t get enough love as a child up from
your mother (or father), you may unconsciously pick uncaring or rejecting partners as an adult,
trying to work out this childhood conflict.
“Behavioral” approach = views behavior as the product of learning and associations.
Past experiences shape our present behavior, i.e., as we go through life, we notice that certain
things we do are rewarded (so we do them more) and certain things we do are punished (so we
do them less). As mentioned before, behaviorism believes psychology should study only
observable behavior; unconscious conflicts (or mental processes at all) have no place in
behaviorism.
o Behaviorists also believe man is essentially shaped by his environment. A
famous quote by John B. Watson goes, “Give me a dozen healthy infants, wellformed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take
any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—
doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his
ancestors (Myers p. 234).
o Behaviorists do not put much stock in free will. If you can control a person’s
environment, i.e., the rewards and punishments they receive, you can control a
person’s child’s learning and thus their behavior. Critics of behaviorism say its
mechanistic, reducing human beings to little more than robots. Antecedent
environmental  Behavior  Consequences
“Humanistic” approach = views people as basically good and capable of helping
themselves. All of us our born with an innate tendency towards self-actualization, i.e., to fulfill
our potential, to be the best person we can be. If we follow this “inner voice”, we can do
anything. If our life is stalled, something is interfering with this natural tendency. The
humanistic approach focuses on conscious awareness (as opposed to psychoanalytic theory) and
our freedom to choose (as opposed to behaviorism). Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers are two
key forerunners of humanistic psychology
“Evolutionary” approach = based on Darwin’s theory of natural selection, explaining
behavior as adaptations to enhance reproductive success

What is “eclecticism”?
“Eclecticism” = the process of making your own system by borrowing from two or more
other systems; the basic notion behind eclecticism is that you don’t have to subscribe to one
single approach to psychology. You may think one approach best explains a particular situation
best; yet opt for a different approach for a different situation. Or you may find that 2 or 3
different approaches all provide valuable insights for a third situation.

What is “behavioral genetics?
Behavioral genetics = tries to determine to what extent individual differences among
human beings are determined by heredity vs. life experience. BG tries to solve the age-old
nature-nurture debate, i.e., is our personality determined more by our genetic heredity, which is
determined before we’re even born; or by our environment, i.e., what we learn and experience
after we’re born.

What is “evolutionary psychology?
“Evolutionary psychology” = studies the evolution of behavior and the mind using
principles of natural selection. Its focus is on universal human traits (as opposed to behavioral
genetics which focuses on individual differences).
“Natural selection” = inherited traits that have adaptive value, i.e., superior hearing or
smell, result in the organism surviving and thus passing on this new genetic code to succeeding
generations; less adaptive mutations don’t make it and aren’t perpetuated.
For example: EP explains male/female mate-selection differences in terms of their
evolutionary survival value. Men are attracted to partners based more of physical features
(suggesting youth and health, i.e., reproductive potential); women are more interested in a man’s
status and influence, his long-term potential as a provider.
EP biggest critiques are: it tends to be non-predictive, that is after the fact theorizing, it
reinforces inequitable male/female stereotypes and it minimizes the importance of “nurture”
variables re: human behavior (especially gender roles).

What is “positive psychology”?
Positive psychology = movement that focuses on the study of optimal human
functioning; and factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive
Martin Seligman founded PP, believing that psychology had become preoccupied with
repairing the worst aspects of life rather than building on positive qualities.
PP differs from humanistic psychology in its focus on research

What is the difference between “basic” and “applied” research?
Basic research = “pure” science that aims at increasing scientific knowledge (without
worrying about the usefulness or applicability of such knowledge). It’s knowledge for
knowledge’s sake.
Applied research = scientific study aimed at solving practical problems.
Industrial/organizational psychologists who apply psychological principles to the workplace are
an example. You could probably say that clinical psychologists and psychotherapists are doing
applied research.

What types of careers are available in psychology?
Clinical or counseling psychologists = diagnose and treat people with psychological
problems; C/CP represent over half of all psychologists. They are (obviously) doing applied
research.
Academic or experimental psychologists = doing active research to expand knowledge,
i.e., basic research; usually done in a university setting.
Examples of A/EP are: biological psychologists who explore the underlying physiology
behind our behavior; social psychologists who explore how our social relationships influence our
behavior; developmental psychologists = study the human development from birth to death; or
cognitive psychologists which study mental processes
Other applied psychologists include: educational psychologists who work inside the
school system applying psychological principles to classroom and curriculum development;
industrial psychologists who apply PP to businesses to improve working conditions, efficiency,
sales, etc.; human factors or engineering psychologists who design instruments and machines for
maximum comfort and efficiency; and psychometricians or measurement psychologists who
create and evaluated standardized tests
5S: Forensic = apply psychology to legal issues; Neuro = relationship of brain & nervous
systems with behavior. Rehabilitation = helping clients with mental retardation, developmental
or other disabilities. Sports =

Where do most psychologists work?.
28% Universities and colleges; 33% private practice; 16% hospitals or clinics