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Psychology Mr. Hoffman How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? In operant conditioning, the consequences of behavior, such as rewards and punishments, influence the chance that our behavior will occur again Operant and Classical Conditioning Compared Classical conditioning involves the association of two stimuli (UCS + CS) before the response or behavior Operant conditioning involves a reinforcing (reward) or punishing stimulus after a response or behavior How Do We Learn New Behaviors by Operant Conditioning? Trial-and-error learning – Learner gradually discovers the correct response by attempting many behaviors and noting which ones produce the desired consequences Operant Conditioning Learning in which an organism’s behavior is followed by a reward or punishment Organism learns to perform behavior in order to gain a reward or avoid a punishment Skinner’s Radical Behaviorism B.F. Skinner believed that the most powerful influences on behavior are its consequences Elements of Operant Conditioning Reinforcer A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior more likely to occur again Punisher A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and makes that behavior less likely to occur again IMPORTANT! “Reinforce” means to increase the probability of that response happening again IMPORTANT! “Positive” (+) Add “Negative” (-) Remove The Power of Reinforcement Positive reinforcers – Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior Types of Reinforcement Positive reinforcer (+) Adds something rewarding following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again Giving a dog a treat for fetching a ball is an example Negative reinforcer (-) Removes something unpleasant from the environment following a behavior, making that behavior more likely to occur again Torturing a prisoner for information The Power of Reinforcement Primary reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism The Power of Reinforcement • Secondary reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by their learned association with primary reinforcers (also called conditioned reinforcers) Contingencies of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced Partial reinforcement – Reinforcement schedule in which some, but not all, correct responses are reinforced (also called intermittent reinforcement) Contingencies of Reinforcement Extinction – In operant conditioning, a process by which a response that has been learned is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement How does this differ from extinction in classical conditioning? Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain set number of responses e.g. factory workers getting paid after every 10 cases of product are completed Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain number of responses, but that number varies from trial to trial e.g. slot machine payoffs Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain fixed amount of time, regardless of number of responses e.g. weekly or monthly paychecks Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio (FR) Variable Ratio (VR) Fixed Interval (FI) Variable Interval (VI) Rewards appear after a certain amount of time, but that amount varies from trial to trial e.g. random visits from the boss who delivers praise Schedules of Reinforcement Interval schedules Reinforcement depends on the passing of time Fixed-interval schedule Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount of time has passed An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks Variable-interval Reinforcement schedule follows the first behavior after a variable amount of time has passed An example would be pop quizzes Schedules of Reinforcement Ratio schedules Reinforcement depends on the number of responses made Fixed-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a fixed number of behaviors For example, being paid on a piecework basis Variable-ratio schedule Reinforcement follows a variable number of behaviors An example would be playing slot machines Response Patterns to Schedules of Reinforcement The Problem of Punishment Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows How does this differ from negative reinforcement? Punishment Goal of punishment is to decrease the occurrence of a behavior Effective punishment Should occur as soon as possible after the behavior Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough Should be certain, occurring every time the behavior does Should be consistent Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement Loud Noise Response Consequence Press Lever Loud Noise Removed Press Lever Loud Noise Applied Punishment No Noise The Problem of Punishment Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response • Omission training (negative punishment) – The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response Punishment Not as effective as reinforcement Does not teach proper behavior, only suppresses undesirable behavior Causes upset that can impede learning May give impression that inflicting pain is acceptable Four Kinds of Consequences STIMULUS + Present Remove Positive or appetitive Negative or aversive Positive Reinforcement Punishment Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work Negative Reinforcement Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use Getting speeding ticket leads to less speeding Omission Training Missing dinner leads to less staying out late The Use and Abuse of Punishment Power usually disappears when threat of punishment is removed Punishment Often triggers aggression May inhibit learning new and better responses Is often applied unequally When does punishment work? Alternatives to Punishment Extinction Reinforcing preferred activities Premack principle Prompting and shaping How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? According to cognitive psychology, some forms of learning must be explained as changes in mental processes, rather than as changes in behavior alone How Does Cognitive Psychology Explain Learning? Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions Cognitive maps – A mental representation of physical space Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-term potentiation – Biological process involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells; believed to be the neural basis of learning Operant Conditioning is Selective Operant conditioning techniques work best with behaviors that would typically occur in a specific situation Superstitious behavior Tendency to repeat behaviors that are followed closely by a reinforcer, even if they are not related For example, a particular pair of socks might become “lucky” if something good happened when you wore them Learned Helplessness Failure to try to avoid an unpleasant stimulus because in the past it was unavoidable Possible model for depression in humans Behavioral Change Using Biofeedback Biofeedback is an operant technique that teaches people to gain voluntary control over bodily processes like heart rate and blood pressure When used to control brain activity it is called neurofeedback Response Acquisition Classical conditioning Naturally occurring responses are attached to conditioned stimulus by pairing that stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus Spacing of trials Operant conditioning Learning process in which desired responses are followed by reinforcers Shaping, reinforcing successive approximations to a target behavior, can speed up Extinction and Spontaneous Classical Recovery Operant conditioning US and CS are no longer paired, eliminating the CR Spontaneous recovery occurs when the CR temporarily returns without additional training conditioning Extinction occurs when reinforcement is stopped, eliminating the conditioned behavior Spontaneous recovery occurs when behavior temporarily returns without additional training Generalization and Discrimination Classical Operant conditioning Stimulus generalization Organism learns to respond to other similar stimuli Stimulus discrimination Organism learns to respond only to specific stimuli conditioning Response generalization Stimulus generates similar responses Response discrimination Only specific responses are reinforced in the presence of specific stimuli New Learning Based on Original Learning Higher-Order Conditioning in Classical Conditioning New conditioning based on earlier conditioning Earlier CS is used as a US for further training Desensitization is based on this principle New Learning Based on Original Learning Secondary reinforcers in operant conditioning Primary reinforcer Intrinsically rewarding Food, water, sex Secondary reinforcer Acquire rewarding properties by being associated with primary reinforcers Provide ability to obtain primary reinforcer Example would be money Contingencies in Classical Conditioning Research has shown that a CS must provide information about the US in order for conditioning to occur This predictive relationship between the CS and US is referred to as a contingency Contingencies in Operant Conditioning Behaviors that are reinforced intermittently are more resistant to extinction Most behavior is reinforced with some type of intermittent schedule Cognitive Learning Learning that depends on mental activity that is not directly observable Involves such processes as attention, expectation, thinking, and memory Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps Latent learning is learning that takes place before the subject realizes it and is not immediately reflected in behavior A cognitive map is latent learning stored as a mental image Insight and Learning Sets Insight is when learning seems to occur in a sudden “flash” as elements of a situation come together Learning sets refer to increasing effectiveness at problem solving through experience, i.e., organisms “learn how to learn” Learning by Observing Social learning theory focuses on what we learn from observing other people Observational or vicarious learning occurs when we see the consequences of other people’s behavior Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment affects the willingness of people to perform behaviors they learned by watching others Cognitive Learning in Nonhumans Nonhumans are capable of classical and operant conditioning Nonhumans are also capable of latent learning Research has also demonstrated that animals are capable of observational learning