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Organic Molecules Proteins: The Workhorses of Life Carbohydrates Lipids Minerals and Vitamins Great Idea: A cell s major parts are constructed from a few simple molecular building blocks Organic Molecules Four Basic Characteristics • Most molecules based on chemistry of carbon – Organic molecules • Life s molecules form from few elements – H, O, C, N à 97.5% of body weight • Molecules composed of simple building blocks – Arranged differently • Shape determines behavior – Determines ability for bonding Atoms in the Human Body Chemical Shorthand • No H atoms or bonds to H are shown • C atoms are not shown explicitly Shorthand Proteins: The Workhorses of Life Proteins: The Workhorses of Life Amino Acids: Building Blocks of Proteins • Amino acid – Carboxyl group – Amino group – Carbon atom – Side group • Side group – Makes amino acid unique Amino Acid Structure Distinctive Side Chain on Amino Acids Proteins • Protein – Large molecule – Chain of amino acids • Only 20 amino acids in living organisms Science by the Numbers • How many proteins can you make? Proteins as Enzymes • Enzymes – Specific shape and structure – Facilitates bonding – Recycled An Enzyme in Action Computer-‐Generated Image of an Enzyme in AcOon The Science of Life • Proteins and diet – EssenOal amino acids – High-‐quality proteins – Low-‐quality proteins Essential Amino Acids in Eggs and Cornmeal How Drugs Work • Blocking enzymes – Block active site – Molecules cannot bond – Reaction does not take place • Shape of molecules – Block membrane transport – Block neurotransmitters Carbohydrates Structure C, H, O Simplest - sugars CnH2nOn Monosaccharides Polysaccharides Starches Cellulose Glucose Fructose Polysaccharides Lipids • Lipids – Insoluble in water • Role of lipids – Cell membranes – Store energy • Phospholipids – Make up cell membrane Structure of a Phospholipid Saturated vs. Unsaturated Lipids Cell Membranes • Cell membrane – Hydrophilic – Hydrophobic Lipid Bilayer Minerals and Vitamins Vitamin and Mineral Supplements Minerals • Minerals – All chemical elements except C, H, N, O • Example – Calcium • 2% of weight RDAs for Minerals Vitamins • Vitamins – Organic molecules – Must be taken in with food • Except vitamin D • FuncOon – Assist enzymes Types of Vitamins • Water soluble – Vitamins B & C • Fat soluble – Vitamins A, D, E, & K Citrus Fruit and Vitamin C RDAs for Vitamins Classical and Modern Genetics Chapter 23 Great Idea: All living things use the same genetic code to guide the chemical reactions in every cell. Chapter Outline • DNA and the Birth of Molecular Genetics • The Genetic Code DNA and the Birth of Molecular Genetics Nucleotides: The Building Blocks of Nucleic Acids • Nucleotide – Three molecules • Sugar – DNA: deoxyribose – RNA: ribose • Phosphate ion • Base – Adenine (A) – Guanine (G) – Cytosine (C) – Thymine (T); uracil (U) in RNA Ribose and Deoxyribose Nucleotide DNA Structure • Bonding pattern – Adenine:Thymine – Cytosine:Guanine AT TA CG GC DNA Structure RNA Structure • Differences – One string of nucleotides – Sugar is ribose – Thymine replaced by uracil • Uracil (U) bonds with adenine The Replication of DNA • DNA replication – Occurs before mitosis and meiosis • Process – DNA double helix splits – New bases bond to exposed bases – Result • Two double-stranded DNA molecules, each identical to the original molecule DNA ReplicaOon The Genetic Code Transcription of DNA • Transcription – Information transport – Uses RNA • Process – Unzip DNA – RNA binds to exposed bases – RNA moves out of nucleus (mRNA) TranscripOon of DNA tRNA • tRNA – Reads message – Structure • Amino acid • 3 bases The Synthesis of Proteins • Process – mRNA moves to ribosome – rRNA aligns mRNA and tRNA – tRNA matches codon on mRNA – Amino acid chain forms • Basis for protein Computer-‐Generated Model of tRNA The InteracOon of mRNA and tRNA The FormaOon of a Protein The GeneOc Code Protein Synthesis -‐ cont. • One gene codes for one protein • Protein drives chemical process in cell • DNA – Introns – Exons • All living things on Earth use the same genetic code Protein ProducOon from DNA Mutations and DNA Repair • Mutations – Change in DNA of parent – Causes • Nuclear radiation • X-rays • UV light • DNA repair – 10,000 hits per day – Cells repair damage Why Are Genes Expressed? • Gene control – Turning genes on and off – Each cell contains same genes – Not all cells have same function – Certain genes activated • Scientists currently studying how Viruses • Virus – Not alive – No metabolism – Cannot reproduce on own • Structure – Short DNA or RNA – Protein coating Viruses – cont. • How it works – Taken into cell – Takes over cell – Produces more copies – Kills cell Bacterial Virus Herpes Virus HIV • Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) – Contains RNA – Codes back to DNA – DNA incorporated into cell – Makes new viruses – Cell dies • Complex – Two protein coats • Outer coat fits T cell receptors • Inner coat encloses RNA HIV Viral Epidemics • Viruses – Cannot use medication – Use vaccination • Viruses evolve rapidly – HIV – Influenza – SARS – Bird flu Role of Phagocytes The Human Genome • Human Genome Project – DNA sequencing – 3 billion bases Wooly Mammoth DNA, Genes, Chromosomes, and Genomes Technology • New ways to sequence – J. Craig Venter • Faster sequencing Thinking More about Genetics • The ethics of genes – What should we do with genetic information? – Patent it? – Share with insurance companies? – Change it? Genetic engineering…. Great Idea: Our new understanding of genetic mechanisms is leading to enormous technological advances in medicine and other aspects of our lives. Chapter Outline • The Technology of Genes • Stem Cells, Cloning, and RegeneraOve Medicine • The New Face of Medicine • Unraveling the Past: Mitochondrial DNA The Technology of Genes GeneOc Engineering • GeneOc engineering – Foreign genes inserted – ExisOng genes altered • Technique – RestricOon enzymes cut DNA – Another DNA strand binds – New gene is expressed GeneOc Engineering – cont. • Examples – Insulin – Agriculture • GMO – DOA – FDA – EPA • Bioterrorism RestricOon Enzymes The Process of GeneOc Engineering GeneOcally Modified Organisms Technology • Bioterrorism – Anthrax • Spores – Smallpox – Spanish influenza – 1918 – Department of Homeland Security Technology • The PCR process Science by the Numbers • PCR mulOplicaOon – Each cycle doubles the number of DNA molecules DNA FingerprinOng • DNA fingerprinOng – Analysis of DNA in human Ossue – Uses • IdenOfy criminals • IdenOfy vicOms • Process – Analyze DNA secOons for repeats – Compare to individual of interest • VNTR • STR CSI STR Method of DNA FingerprinOng Stem Cells, Cloning, and RegeneraOve Medicine Stem Cells, Cloning, and RegeneraOve Medicine • Gene Control – Genes on or off – Produce only copies • Early development – Pluripotent • Develop into any cell in body Stem Cells, Cloning, and RegeneraOve Medicine – cont. • Development – Blastocyst • Outer cells: placenta • Inner cells: embryonic stem cells – Gastrula • Not pluripotent • DifferenOaOon – Adulthood • SomaOc or adult stem cells • Stem cell line – Reproduce without differenOaOon Early Stages of Embryonic Development Science in the Making • Cloning Dolly the sheep – 1997; Ian Wilmut – ReproducOve cloning • Procedure – Other mammals cloned The First Cloned Mammal Foreign DNA Introduced into an Animal Cell The New Face of Medicine Cancer-‐A Different Kind of GeneOc Disease • Normal Cell – Guardianship • Cancer – Cells reproduce without restraint • Due to geneOc defect • Usually 5–6 damaged genes – CollecOon of diseases Cancer-‐A Different Kind of GeneOc Disease – cont. • GeneOc defects – Increase cancer probability – LifeOme risk >80% • Cure – Surgery, radiaOon, chemotherapy – Gene therapy Normal and Cancer Cells DNA Repair in a Cell Plants and PesOcides Unraveling the Past: Mitochondrial DNA Unraveling the Past: Mitochondrial DNA • Mitochondria – Independent DNA (mtDNA) – Single loop – 37 genes – Non-‐coding secOon • 1000 base pairs • Use to study human evoluOon – All mitochondria from mother DNA in Mitochondria Thinking More about Embryonic Stem Cells • Issue debated • No simple answers