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Biology EOC Review Guide 1
Mrs. Stahl
The pictures were obtained from various websites. Most web addresses are below the
pictures if you would like to use them or look at them.
The Goal of Science:
1) deals only with the natural world
2) to collect and organize information
3) propose explanations that can be tested
Science - using evidence to learn about the natural world; a body of knowledge
Always begins with observations.
Data- information gathered from observations.
1. Quantitative- numbers
2. Qualitative- descriptive
The Scientific Method:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Make an Observation
Ask a Question
Hypothesis
Experimentation
Analyze results
Conclusion
Repeat
If you analyze your results and find that your hypothesis was incorrect or false, try again. Reconstruct /
fix your hypothesis and start over!
If your results are correct and your hypothesis is true, report your results and get published!!! Woohoooo

Why is it important to replicate or duplicate your results?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Instrumental error
Personal error
Sample size is too small or it isn’t a good mix
Inconsistency and inaccuracy
Experimental design is flawed or messed up.
Measurement error
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Hypothesis- prediction based on prior knowledge or a tentative explanation for an observation,
phenomena, or scientific problem.
Inference- logical interpretation based on prior knowledge.
Theory- proposed explanation for a wide range of observations that has been supported by a wide range
of observations. Ex- Theory of Evolution.
Scientific law- Backed up by a large amount of proven research and has never been disproven. ExampleNewton’s Laws of Motion
Variable- things that may change in your experiment.
1. Independent Variable- manipulated variable. This is what the experimenter has control over
and can change. For example- time, amount of something like a chemical, amount of
sunlight.
2. Dependent Variable- the observed variable in an experiment. The data that is collected or the
change caused because of the independent variable. For example- plant height
3. Controlled Variable- Variables that remain the same. For example- same amount of water,
same amount of sunlight, same size pot.
Graphsy-axis= Dependent
Variable.
x-axis = Independent Variable
Types of Microscopes
Light Microscope - the models found in most schools, use compound lenses to magnify objects. The
lenses bend or refract light to make the object beneath them appear closer. Common magnifications: 40x,
100x, 400x
Stereoscope - this microscope allows for binocular (two eyes) viewing of larger specimens.
Scanning Electron Microscope - allow scientists to view a universe too small to be seen with a light
microscope. SEMs do not use light waves; they use electrons (negatively charged electrical particles) to
magnify objects up to two million times. Scans the surface and is too strong for living organisms.
Transmission Electron Microscope - also uses electrons, but instead of scanning the surface (as with
SEM's) electrons are passed through very thin specimens. This allows for a detailed internal look!
Biology EOC Review Guide 3
Mrs. Stahl
Characteristics of all Living Things:
1. Made up of cellsa. Unicellular- single or one celled= Prokaryotes like bacteria
b. Multicellular- many cells= Eukaryotes like Plants and Animals
c. Cells-> tissues-> organs-> organ systems-> organism
2. Reproductiona. Asexual- one parent, offspring is genetically identical to the parent.
i. Budding= Hydra
ii. Fragmentation= Sea star
iii. Binary Fission= Bacteria
b. Sexual- two parents, gametes (sperm and egg). Offspring are genetically different.
3. Metabolism- chemical process that breaks down or builds up materials.
a. Autotrophs- make their own food through photosynthesis and chemosynthesis
b. Heterotrophs- eat other organisms. Cellular Respiration.
4. Homeostasis- maintenance or regulation of internal body conditions. Body is at a balancetemperature, blood sugar levels, and water balance.
5. DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid- the genetic material that codes for proteins of all organisms.
6. Response to Stimuli- responding to factors in the environment.
a. Abiotic- non-living such as water, sand, temperature
b. Biotic- Living such as plants and animals.
7. Growth and Developmenta. Growth- increase in the amount of living things through cell division or cell
enlargement.
b. Development- Changing from conception to death. Baby-> older
8. Evolution- Change over time. Adapting to survive- behaviors, structures, processes that increase
its chances of survival that are passed on from parent to offspring.
http://www.biology-online.org/2/11_natural_selection.htm
Biology EOC Review Guide 4
Mrs. Stahl
Biochemistry
Atom- smallest basic unit of matter.
Element- one particular type of atom that cannot be broken down into simpler substances. Ex- Oxygen
Compound- substance made up of atoms of different elements. Ex- H2O = water.
Molecule- two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Protons- Positively charged particles. In the nucleus.
Neutrons-Neutral / no charge. In the nucleus.
Electrons-Negatively charged particles. In the electron cloud = outer rings. 2-8-8-18-32
http://wikis.lawrence.edu/display/CHEM/3.1+Periodic+Table+%28Ashley+Vokral%29
If you are asked to find the PEN
of an element:
Atomic number equals the
number of protons and
electrons in a neutral atom.
There are 6 protons and 6
electrons.
Ion- when an atom gains or loses and electron.
Atomic Mass is the sum of
protons and neutrons. Therefore
if you know you have 6 protons
there must be 6 neutrons
because 6 + 6 =12
Ionic Bond- oppositely charged ions= opposites attract (+ / -). Ex- Na+Cl-. Outermost energy level needs
to be full with the maximum number of electrons in that level in order to be stable.
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/I/ionic_bond.html
Covalent Bond- atoms share a pair of electrons. Strongest bond.
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Hydrogen Bonds: attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen and slightly negative oxygen. Weakest
bond.
Properties of Water:
Properties of Water Table
Property of Water
Cohesion
Explanation of Property
Water molecules stick together
Adhesion
Water molecules stick to other
substances.
The amount of force required to
break the surface of the water.
Water molecules stick to tubes of
small diameter.
Surface Tension
Capillary Action
High Specific Heat
Phenomenon / Examples
Water droplets on a car, drops of
water on a penny
Water sticking to the sides of a
graduated cylinder.
Spider walking in water or paper
clips floating on the water.
Plants transport water from roots
to leaves. Also water going up a
straw.
Boiling or melting point.
Water resists changes in
temperature. Water has to absorb
a lot of heat energy to increase
temperature.
** Solvent / Solute= the solvent is the substance that is present in the greatest amount and is the
substance that dissolves the solutes. Solute is the substance that dissolves. Ex- Solvent = water and the
solute= Kool-Aid packet.
All organisms are made up of organic compounds / carbon based molecules / macromolecules.
Polymer- many monomers bonded together.
Monomer- one subunit
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Mrs. Stahl
4 types of carbon based molecules:
1. Carbohydratesa. Major source of energy
b. Starches, cellulose, and sugars (starches= potatoes and pasta)
c. Composed of monosaccharide’s primarily glucose.
d. Polymers= polysaccharides= starches, glycogen, and cellulose.
e. Monomers= monosaccharide’s= glucose
f. Made up of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen with a 2:1 ration of hydrogen to
oxygen.
g. Plants and animals use carbs for the manufacturing and structuring within
the cell.
h.
Circular structure
2. Proteinsa. Building blocks of proteins are amino acids (20 different)
b. Ribosome’s make proteins.
c. Nitrogen containing compounds
d. Polymers- Proteins (polypeptide bonds)
e. Monomers- Amino Acids (peptide bonds)
f. Responsible for the composition of enzymes, hormones, antibodies, and
structures (muscles)
g. Molecular structure looks like a chain. R group represents the different
amino acids. Each one has a different R or side group.
3. Lipidsa. Fats and oils = water insoluble (cannot dissolve in water)
b. Made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
c. Composed of glycerol and fatty acids. Can include steroids.
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d. Provide insulation, store energy, cushion internal organs, and are found in
biological membranes.
e. Saturated= filled with hydrogen, Unsaturated= not filled with hydrogen
f. Molecular structure looks like a long chain with an excessive amount of
hydrogen’s!
4. Nucleic Acidsa. DNA and RNA
b. Direct the instruction of proteins
c. Genetic information an organism receives from its parents
d. Monomer- nucleotides (a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous bases)
e. Polymer- Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
f. Made up of nucleotides.
g. Molecular structure looks somewhat like a “U.” Your DNA makes up “U.”
Metabolism is the chemistry of life and is always controlled by enzymes!!!
ENZYMES!!!
* Speeds up rates of reactions, also known as a catalyst.
* Lowers activation energy.
* Proteins that function to speed up chemical reactions in the cell.
* Have specific shape and interact with a specific substrate which binds at the active site.
* Regulate nearly every biochemical reaction in the cell.
* Different reactions require different enzymes.
* Provide energy for cells; build new cells, aid in digestion, and breakdown complex molecules.
Biology EOC Review Guide 8
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* Factors that affect enzymes= pH, temperature, and quantity.
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Biological_Chemistry/Catalysts
Cells
Cell theory:
1. Cells are the basic unit of life.
2. All organisms are made up of cells.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
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Prokaryotic
No nucleus or membrane bound organelles
DNA is suspended in the cytoplasm and is
circular
Single Celled, smaller, less complex
Cells Walls
Evolved 3.5 bya / Cyanobacteria
Ex- Bacteria
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Eukaryotic
Has a nucleus with membrane bound
organelles
Nucleus stores the genetic material and is
linear
Multicellular or unicellular
Larger, more complex
Plants and animals
Evolved 1.5 mya
Both
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Microscopic in size
Composed of similar building
blocks
Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Loaded with ribosome’s
Have DNA
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http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/cells/common.html
Scientists:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Hooke- first to identify cells and name them.
Leewenhoek- observed cells in greater detail because he had a better lens.
Schleiden- first to note that plants are made up of cells.
Schwann- stated that all living things are made of cells.
Virchow- proposed that cells come from pre-existing cells.
Biology EOC Review Guide 10
Mrs. Stahl
Cell Organelles: Label them!!!!
Label the Plant and Animal Cell
7
1.__________________________
8.____________________________________
2.__________________________
9.____________________________________
3.__________________________
10. ___________________________________
4.__________________________
11.____________________________________
5.__________________________
12.____________________________________
6.__________________________
13.____________________________________
7.__________________________
14.____________________________________
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Mrs. Stahl
A.______________________________
I.________________________________
B.______________________________
J.________________________________
C.______________________________
K.________________________________
D.______________________________
L._________________________________
E.______________________________
M._________________________________
F.______________________________
N.__________________________________
G.______________________________
H.______________________________
http://www.google.com/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&docid=OXSa
Jol9XPt31M&tbnid=It2UUCsU0jFOqM:&ved=0CAUQjB0&url=http%3A%2F%2Fmarialombardic.blogspot.c
om%2F2011%2F12%2Fanimal-cell-labelled.html&ei=fRkfU_i3BofpkAfuIGADQ&bvm=bv.62788935,d.eW0&psig=AFQjCNEjPnLtmjtxglu-wMUAbMfUxlbbA&ust=1394633467769504
Biology EOC Review Guide 12
Mrs. Stahl
Organelle
Cell Membrane
Cell Wall
Cytoskeleton
Centrioles
Centrosome
Lysosomes
Vesicle
Cytoplasm
Golgi Apparatus
Mitochondria
Ribosomes
Function
Plant / Animal / Both
Regulates what enters and
leaves the cell membrane
Outer surface that supports and
protects the cell.
Helps the cell maintain its shape
and helps some cell parts move
about the cell.
a. Microtubules
b. Intermediate Filaments
c. Actin Filaments
Short cylinders that may aid in
cell reproduction, but unsure.
Microtubule organizing center
that surrounds the centrioles.
Vesicles that breakdown and
digest old cell parts.
Membrane bound sac that stores
and transports substances
(think- endocytosis and
exocytosis)
Jellylike fluid that surrounds all
of the organelles. Helps
transport nutrients, etc
throughout the cell as well as
serve as a protective cushion.
 Processes, sorts,
packages, and delivers
proteins and
carbohydrates into
vesicles for export out of
the cell.
 Membrane contains
enzymes
 Supply energy to the cell
 Converts food into
energy (glucose into
ATP)
 Have their own
ribosome's and DNA
 Site of Cellular or
Aerobic Respiration
Both
Make proteins and carry out
protein synthesis.
Both
Plant Only
Both
Animal Only
Animal Only
Animal Only
Both
Both
Both
Both
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Organelle
Smooth ER
Function
No ribosomes
Lots of folds, inner
membrane= lumen
Makes proteins and
lipids
Controls calcium levels
in muscles
Breaks down drugs and
alcohol
Plant / Animal / Both
Both
Covered in ribosomes
Attached to the nucleus
Produces, transports
enzymes and proteins
throughout the cell.
Both
Control Center of the cell.
Storehouse of DNA
 Double membrane
around the nucleus
 Protects the nucleus
 Has pores around it for
molecules to pass in and
out
Both
Nucleolus
 Dense region in the
middle of the nucleus
 Ribosome's are made
here
Both
Nuclear Pore
 Allows things to move in
and out of the nucleus.
Both
Vacuole
 Fluid filled sacs
 Full of water, nutrients,
and waste that is on its
way out.
Both
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Rough ER
Nucleus
Nuclear Envelope
Cilia
Flagella
Chloroplast
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Hair like projections that aid in
movement.
Tail like projection that aids in
movement.
Carry out photosynthesis by
capturing and converting solar
energy. Has chlorophyll .
Both
Animal
Both
Plant
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Mrs. Stahl
Central Vacuole
Fluid filled sac used for storage
of materials needed by the cell
such as water, food, enzymes,
and inorganic molecules.
Plants have a:
1. Cell wall
2. Central Vacuole
3. Chloroplast
Plant
Animals have:
1. Lysosomes (evident in cytoplasm)
2. Centrioles / Centrosome
3. Cilia (rare in plants)
Cell membrane- Composed of a phospholipid bilayer, proteins, cholesterol, and glycoproteins. Semipermeable membrane that allows certain things into the cell while others are not allowed.
* Also called the plasma membrane- control homeostasis
* Selectively permeable
http://www.cliffsnotes.com/sciences/biology/plant-biology/energy-and-plant-metabolism/membranestructure
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cellmembrane.htm
Biology EOC Review Guide 15
Mrs. Stahl
Phospholipid bilayer= heads and tails. They are the gates to the membrane.
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Hydrophilic phosphate / glycerol heads= water loving and they face the
outside
Hydrophobic fatty acid tails= water fearing and they face the inside towards
each other.
Integral protein = help regulate movement of molecules that are too big to pass through the
semi-permeable membrane.
Channel Proteins- form small openings for molecules to easily diffuse through. Often used in
passive transport.
Transport or Carrier Proteins- provides a binding site on the surface of the protein where the
molecule can be grabbed and pulled into the cell. They typically change shape when they bind
to a target molecule.
Glycoproteins= cell recognition, attachment
Glycolipids= protective, cell recognition, provide energy
Peripheral proteins= attachment points between the cells and enzymes.
Cholesterols- helps strengthen the membrane.
Proteins Functions:
1. Transport
2. Reception
3. Communication
Biology EOC Review Guide 16
Mrs. Stahl
Cellular Transport
Two Types: Passive and Active
Passive Transport- NO ENERGY
* Movement of substances across the plasma
membrane without the use of the cell’s energy.
* Goes with the concentration gradient (like
swimming with the current).
* Diffusion- movement from an area of high
concentration to low concentration.
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cellm
embrane.htm
* Osmosis- diffusion of water across the cell
membrane from areas of high to low
concentration.
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cellmembra
ne.htm
Remember SALT AND SUGAR SUCKS WATER.
Where ever the concentration is the highest,
that is where the water will go.
Active Transport – REQUIRES ENERGY
* Movement of substances across the
plasma membrane that requires the use of
the cell’s energy and carrier / transport
molecules.
* Goes against the concentration gradient
(like swimming upstream).
* Moving from high to low concentration.
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cel
lmembrane.htm
* Membrane pumps- using enzymes to
move substances through the proteins in the
cell membrane.
Ex- most common is the sodium potassium
pump.
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cel
lmembrane.htm
*Endocytosis- large particles are brought
into the cell by the cell membrane wrapping
around them, pinching off, and forming a
vesicle with the molecule.
Biology EOC Review Guide 17
Mrs. Stahl
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cel
lmembrane.htm
* Exocytosis- Transports materials out of the
cell.
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cellmembra
ne.htm
Isotonic-Concentration is the same inside and
outside the cell. Homeostasis.
Hypertonic- Concentration is greater outside
the cell, causing the water to move out of the
cell which makes the cell shrivel.
Hypotonic-Concentration is greater inside the
cell causing the water to flow into the cell
resulting in swelling or even rupture.
* Facilitated Diffusion- movement of a
substance down its concentration gradient
through a transport protein.
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/cellm
embrane.htm
http://science.halleyhosting.com/sci/ibbio/c
ells/notes/ch6/activeT.htm
Biology EOC Review Guide 18
Mrs. Stahl
Homeostasis-> Cell membrane is a huge part of this because it regulates what
enters and leaves your cells.
* Maintains internal conditions such as body temperature, respiration, nutritional balance
* Cells communicate needs to each other by sending chemical messages that tell the
hypothalamus gland in the brain that a change needs to be made in the interstitial fluid
(solution that bathes the cells).
* Homeostasis changes all the time, day and night.
* Negative feedback (change in a system causes a response that tends to return the system to
its original state) = Glucose / insulin levels in cells. Insulin is a natural occurring hormone in the
pancreas and when you eat your body turns those carbohydrates into glucose and the insulin
opens up those doors in your cells to let the glucose in so that your cells can get back to normal
/ homeostasis.
* Positive feedback= Blood platelets / blood clotting. Wants to accelerate or speed up the
process. When you cut yourself and break the blood vessels you want the area to clot rapidly so
that you don’t bleed to death.
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Mrs. Stahl
Biochemical Reactions
Photosynthesis: Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy for all living things.
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Process by which producers / autotrophs convert sunlight to chemical energy in the
form of glucose.
Occurs in the chloroplast where chlorophyll is made in the thylakoid membrane (grana)
Occurs in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes. Stroma is the fluid portion where the Calvin
Cycle takes place.
Functions:
o Biochemical Process
o 2. Plant Cells only
o 3. Plant growth and development
o 4. Builds plant cell walls= cellulose
o 5. Helps regulate the Earth’s environment
o 6. Removes CO2 from the air
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy --> 6O2 + C6H12O6 (MEMORIZE)
o (Reactants are to the left of the arrow and products are to the right of the arrow).
Light dependent reaction->
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
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Relies on the sunlight
Step 1-> Energy is absorbed from sunlight via chlorophyll and other pigments. Energy is transferred to the
electrons which enter the ETC.
Step 2-> Water molecules are broken down by enzymes and oxygen is released as waste.
Step 3-> Electrons jump from protein to protein down the ETC and their energy is used to pump the
Hydrogen ions from outside to inside the thylakoid membrane (against the concentration gradient = ACTIVE
TRANSPORT)
Step 4-> Energy from sunlight continues to be absorbed, energizing electrons and pushing them along the
ETC.
Step 5-> Electrons are then added to the molecule NADP+ (functions like ADP) to produce NADPH (functions
like ATP).
Step 6-> Hydrogen ions diffuse through a protein channel.
Step 7-> ATP is produced. ADP is changed into ATP when hydrogen ions flow through ATP synthase
(enzyme).
Light independent reaction->
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Uses the ATP from light dependent reactions. ATP is crucial because without it the reaction would not
happen.
Does not need sunlight
Occurs in the stroma and produces sugars
Energy sources are ATP and NADPH
Energy that is needed for a series of chemical reaction is called the Calvin Cycle, named after the scientistMelvin Calvin.
A molecule of glucose is formed as it stores some of the energy captured from sunlight.
Carbon dioxide molecules enter the Calvin cycle
Energy is added and carbon molecules are rearranged
A high-energy three-carbon molecule leaves the cycle
Biology EOC Review Guide 20
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o
o
o
o
1. CO2 is added to the 5 carbons that are already there making a 6 carbon sugar.
2. Energy is added. ATP and NADPH (energy carriers) are used from LDR to split the six carbons into 2 groups
of 3, and to keep the cycle going.
3. Three carbon molecules exit. After they both exit they bond together to form glucose.
4. Three carbon molecules are recycled and changed back to five carbon molecules by energy from ATP. It
takes two turns of the Calvin Cycle to produce 1 molecule of glucose.
http://www.biologycorner.com/APbiology/cellular/notes_photosynthesis1.html
Let’s Summarize
6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Process
Location
Reactants
Ending Products
Light Dependent
Reactions
Thylakoid
Membrane
Sunlight
H2O
ATP
NADPH
O2
Stroma
ATP
NADPH
CO2
Glucose
Where the
photosystems
take place.
Light
Independent
Reactions.
Where the Calvin
Cycle takes place
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Cellular Respiration:
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Releases chemical energy from sugars and other carbon based molecules to make ATP when
oxygen is present.
Animals use cellular respiration
Plants use photosynthesis
Breakdown food-> ATP
Aerobic-> Need Oxygen
Anaerobic= no oxygen
Takes place in the Mitochondria
It all starts with GLYCOLYSIS- After you eat and the food is broken down into glucose then the
glucose needs to get broken down by glycolysis (2-3 carbon chains, ATP), which takes place in
the cytoplasm and is anaerobic.
o Makes a small number of ATP molecules. Makes 4 ATP, BUT it uses 2 to split up the
carbons, therefore only 2 ATP molecules enter the mitochondria.
o Series of reactions converts the three-carbon molecules to pyruvate / pyruvic acid.
o Pyruvate (naturally made during metabolism) and NADH are used for cellular
respiration.
Part 1- The Krebs Cycle
o Main function- transfer high energy electrons to molecules that carry them to the ETC
o Occurs in the matrix of mitochondria
o Also known as the Citric Acid Cycle because it’s the first molecule formed.
o Step1- Pyruvate is broken down into 2 carbon molecules and CO2 is released as a waste
product. NADH is produced
o Step 2- Coenzyme A bonds to the 2 carbon molecule made from pyruvate and enters the
Kreb’s Cycle.
o Step 3- Citric Acid is formed- the two carbon molecule binds with a four carbon
molecule to make a six carbon molecule which is called citric acid.
o Step 4- Citric acid is broken down, NADH is made, CO2 is given off as a waste product.
o Step 5- Five carbon molecule is broken down. Four carbon molecule, ATP, and NADH
are formed. NADH leaves the Krebs cycle
o Step 6- Four carbon molecules are rearranged. High energy electrons are released. NADH
and FADH2 (electron carrier) are made
Part 2- Electron Transport Chain
o Takes place along the inner membrane of the mitochondria
o Made up of proteins
o Proteins use energy from NADH and FADH2 to pump hydrogen ions against the gradient
(active transport)
o Step 1- Proteins take electrons. They take 2 NADH and 1 FADH2.
o Step 2- Proteins use energy from the electrons to pump the hydrogen ions through the
inner membrane and the hydrogen ions build up on the inside of the membrane.
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Mrs. Stahl
o
o
o
Step 3- ATP is produced. Flow of hydrogen ions helps make the ATP. ATP synthase
adds phosphate groups to ADP to make the ATP molecules. For each pair of electrons
that passes through 3 ATP molecules are made.
Step 4- Oxygen enters and water is formed. Water is given off as a waste product
END RESULT CO2 and pyruvate (from Kreb’s)
 H2O from the ETC
 Net gain of about 38 ATP molecules are made from 1 glucose molecule in an
optimal environment. On average the ATP created is 36 ATP!
 2 glycolysis
 2 from Kreb’s Cycle
 32- 34 from the ETC
ATP- Adenosine Triphosphate
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Our main energy currency.
Molecule that transfers energy from the breakdown of food molecules to cell processes.
Cells use ATP to: 1.Carry energy 2. Build molecules 3. Move materials by active transport
Made up of the sugar ribose, adenine, and three phosphates
Third bond is unstable so it is easily broken. When 3rd is removed it’s releasing energy and turns
into ADP.
ATP Process:
o Step 1- The energy carried by ATP is released when a phosphate group is removed from
the molecule. The third bond is unstable and is easily broken.
o Step 2- Reaction takes place and the energy is released for cell functions, meaning the
third phosphate fell off.
o Step 3- ATP (high energy) then becomes ADP (lower energy molecule) because it just
lost a phosphate.
o Step 4-The molecules get broken down and energy gets added.
o Step 5- Phosphate is added and it’s back to ATP!
Importanceo The foods that you eat don’t contain ATP.
o The food needs to be digested and broken down
o Everything that you eat has a different calorie amount (measures of energy), therefore
different foods produce different amounts of ATP.
o The number of ATP produced depends on what you eat- Carbohydrates, proteins, or
lipids.
Carbohydrates yield- 36 ATP per glucose molecule broken down
Lipids yield 146 ATP
Biology EOC Review Guide 23
Mrs. Stahl
Fermentation
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When cells do not have enough oxygen in a timely manner the cells continue to produce ATP
until oxygen is available again.
Glucose is broken down
o 2 types:
 1. Lactic Acid Fermentation- muscle cells.
 2. Alcoholic fermentation- plant cells
Aerobic Respiration
Requires oxygen
Release of energy from the breakdown of
glucose
Energy released is used to make ATP->
provides energy for bodily processes.
Takes place in almost all living things.
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Anaerobic Respiration
No oxygen
Breakdown of food substances in the
absence of oxygen with the production of a
small amount of energy
Produces less energy
Fermentation
Seen as an adaptation for organisms that
live in environments that lack oxygen.
Chemosynthesis
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Habitats- hydrothermal vents
Anaerobic bacteria
Live in environments without oxygen
Chemotrophs
Energy comes from chemical like methane and hydrogen sulfide
DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis
http://abenagh.pbworks.com/w/page/35946407/GROUP%20FREE%20RESPONSE%204
 Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides (phosphate group, sugar, and
nitrogenous base)
Biology EOC Review Guide 24
Mrs. Stahl
 Found in 1953 by Watson and Crick.
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DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid
Double stranded, twisted ladder,
double helix
Controls the production of proteins
/ RNA
Stays in the nucleus
Sugar= deoxyribose
Nitrogenous Bases= adenine
guanine, thymine, and cytosine
Base Pairs= A-T and C-G (they
always pair up together- known as
Chargaff’s Rule. They match up
because they are roughly the same
amount in each organism).
Replication
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RNA- Ribonucleic Acid
Single stranded
Leaves the nucleus to carry out
functions in the cytoplasm.
Copy of DNA info.
Sugar= Ribose
Nitrogenous bases= adenine, uracil,
guanine, cytosine (instead of
thymine we have uracil)
Base Pairs= A-U and C-G
Three major types- Ribosomal
rRNA, messenger mRNA, and
transfer tRNA
Transcription and Translation
DNA Replication- the process used by cells to copy DNA – an enzyme unzips the DNA by
breaking the hydrogen bonds, and each side of the ladder acts as a template for the building of a
new strand. The tiny sections are called genes.
Sequence of bases determines sequence of amino acids in proteins.
Helicase (Enzyme)- unzips the hydrogen bonds that hold the nitrogenous bases together.
DNA Polymerase (Enzyme) – brings the two strands back together again once they have
replicated.
Example of old strand= TACGGAC
Example of new strand= ATGCCTG
Biology EOC Review Guide 25
Mrs. Stahl
http://www.sanjuan.edu/webpages/lmullisen/lifescience.cfm?subpage=189214
Transcription- the process of making RNA from DNA.
Example of the DNA strand = TACGGAC
Example of the RNA built= AUGCCUG
Remember the T is
replaced with U!!!
Three types of RNA:
1. mRNA- messenger- it’s the blueprint for how to build a protein. Carries messages to the
ribosomes.
2. tRNA- transfer- carries amino acids to ribosomes. Remember amino acids are the building blocks
of proteins!
3. rRNA- ribosomal- makes up a ribosome.
* RNA polymerase is the enzyme responsible for bonding the nucleotides together in a chain to make new
RNA.
http://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/PH/PH709_DNAGenetics/PH709_DNA-Genetics3.html
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Mrs. Stahl
Translation
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Process that converts mRNA into a polypeptide = proteins!
The process of building a protein by matching codons in mRNA to anticodons of tRNA.
Codons= sequence of three amino acids nucleotides that code for a specific amino acid
(remember there are 20).
Anticodons- set of three nucleotides that are complementary to an mRNA codon. Example= the
anticodon for CCC is GGG.
http://teachers.yale.edu/curriculum/viewer/initiative_13.06.01_u
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Mrs. Stahl
Sugar
A
C
T
Phosphate
Held together by
covalent bonds=
very strong!
G
Hydrogen Bondsthey break when
the DNA needs to
replicate.
Base Pairs make
up the rungs of
the ladder and
they always
attach to the
sugars not the
phosphates!!!
A-T
C-G
www.biologycorner.com
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Mrs. Stahl
Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
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1 parent
Genetically identical offspring
No gametes
Fast, efficient, less energy =
advantages
No variation and susceptible to
population wipeout = disadvantages
Binary fission- one bacterium becomes
2 through growing and splitting.
Budding- growth off the side of the
parent like hydras and sponges
Fragmentation like a worm.
Regeneration like a sea star. Arm falls
off and re-grows.
Sexual Reproduction
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2 parents
Fusion of gametes-> sperm and egg
Offspring are genetically different
Slower, less efficient, and more energy
= disadvantages
Huge amounts of variation and can
adapt to changing environments =
advantages
Internal fertilization= sperm meets
eggs inside the female.
External fertilization= spawning-> eggs
and sperm are released into the water.
Meiosis= 4 genetically different haploid
cells.
Cell Division
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Process of copying and dividing the entire cell.
Results in daughter cells being produced.
Mitosis results in 2 identical daughter cells.
Meiosis results in 4 genetically different haploid cells.
Haploid- having one set of chromosomes (n) gametes- sperm / egg. Haploid number =23
Diploid- having two sets of chromosomes (2n)- body cells- one set is from mom and one
is from dad. Diploid number = 46
Cell Cycle•
A regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division that occurs in eukaryotic cells.
•
5 main stages: First three are Interphase.
1. Gap 1
2. Synthesis
3. Gap 2
4. Mitosis
5. Cytokinesis
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Mrs. Stahl
Interphase- First Stop and the longest phase
Gap 1 or G1
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Cell growth
Cells increase in size and
organelles increase in
number
Critical checkpoint to
make sure that the DNA
is perfect and that there
are no imperfections.
Synthesis or S
Phase
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Copies the DNADNA Replication,
Transcription and
Translation occur
here.
By the end the cell’s
nucleus contains two
complete sets of DNA.
Gap 2 or G2
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Additional growth
Critical checkpoint to
make sure that the
DNA is not damaged
and that the cell is
adequate size.
Mitosis- division of the cell’s nucleus.
Terminology:
•
Chromosomes- long continuous strand of DNA
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Histones- A group of proteins that your chromosomes are associated with.
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Chromatin- loose combination of DNA and proteins, looks like spaghetti
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Chromatid- one half of the duplicated chromosome.
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Centromere- the center where sister chromatids are held together.
•
Telomere- the ends of DNA molecules and they prevent the chromosomes from accidently
attaching to one another as well as gene loss.
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o
o
o
o
Prophase- chromosomes are duplicated and spindle fibers form. Nuclear membrane
breaks down.
Metaphase- chromosome line up along the cells equator between the spindle fibers.
Anaphase- chromosomes are pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell
Telophase- nuclear membrane reappears, spindle fibers disappear, and chromosomes
disperse.
http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/cellcycle_labelme.html
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Cytokinesis- division of the cytoplasm.
o 2 identical daughter cells are the end result
http://www.iupui.edu/~wellsctr/MMIA/htm/cytogenetics.htm
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Body has two types of cells:
Somatic Cells or Body cells
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Makes up most of your body and tissues.
Ex- heart, kidneys, eyeballs, etc.
DNA in your body cell is not passed on to
your children.
Germ Cells or Sex Cells
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Cells in your reproductive organs.
Ovaries and testes that develop into sperm
and eggs= your gametes.
DNA is spread to your child.
Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes:
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23 pairs of chromosomes = 46 total in humans
Get 23 from mom and 23 from dad
Each pair = homologous chromosome = means having the same structure.
Homologous Chromosomes- two chromosomes, one from mom and one from dad, which have
the same length and general appearance.
The chromosomes have copies of the same genes but they may differ.
Autosomes are chromosome pairs 1-22 and are not related to the sex of an individual.
Sex Chromosomes:
o Pair number 23
o In Humans- XY= male, and XX= female
o They are not homologous
o X chromosome is larger and carries more genes than the Y, which is smaller and carries
fewer genes.
Karyotype- picture of all of your chromosomes
http://moderngeneticsjavier.blogspot.com/2010/08/theme-2.html
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Meiosis•
Results in 4 genetically different Haploid Cells
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Two rounds: Meiosis 1 and Meiosis 2
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Meiosis 1- divides the homologous chromosomes
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Meiosis 2- divides the sister chromatids
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Reduces chromosome number and increases genetic diversity
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Sex Cells or gametes that are dividing.
http://www.biologycorner.com/worksheets/meiosis2_key.html
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Mrs. Stahl
Functions:
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Prophase 1o
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o
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o
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Metaphase 1o
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o
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Homologous chromosomes are aligned in the middle by spindle fibers.
23 chromosomes line up along each side of the equator- some from mom and some from
dad.
Each side of the equator has chromosomes from both parents.
Anaphase 1o
o
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Homologous pairs form
Chromosomes trade genes
Nuclear membrane breaks down
Centrioles move to opposite sides
Spindle fibers assemble
Longest phase
CROSSING -OVER
Homologous chromosomes separate to opposite sides of the cell.
Sister chromatids remain attached together.
Telophase 1o Spindle fibers fall apart
o Nuclear membrane may reform
o Cell undergoes cytokinesis
o End result= 23 unique duplicated chromosomes from both parents
Prophase 2o Nuclear envelope breaks down
o Centrosomes and centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell.
o Spindle fibers form
Metaphase 2o Spindle fibers align chromosomes along the cells equator.
Anaphase 2o Sister Chromatids are pulled apart from each other to opposite sides of the cell.
Telophase 2o Nuclear Membranes form around chromosomes
o Spindle fibers fall apart
o Cell undergoes cytokinesis
o Results in 4 genetically different haploid cells.
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Review……………..
Meiosis
Mitosis
• Produces 2 genetically
identical diploid daughter
cells
• Takes place throughout an
organisms lifetime
• Involved in asexual
reproduction.
• Occurs only in body cells.
• Responsible for the growth,
repair, and development in
all types of organisms.
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Produces 4 genetically different
haploid cells
Takes place only at certain times
in an organisms life cycle.
Involved in sexual reproductionDNA is copied once but divided
2X’s.
Occurs only in sex cells / germ
cells to produce gametes.
Sometimes called “reduction
division” because it divides the
cells chromosomes by half.