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The AP BIOLOGY
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Janelle Fernandez
Mr. Urbina
Period 3
AP Biology
Introduction
Explain why you are already a scientist.
I’m already a scientist because when we are children, we are very
curious about the things around us such as why do trees grow and why is
the sky blue. Likewise, I like to experiment this things we are curious
about.
Describe career goal.
My career goal is to become a veterinarian. It’s always been a dream of
mine ever since I can remember. I just love to be with animals and help them
in any way possible.
Personal view towards education.
I always been the type who loves to learn. I’m always curious about
learning about new things.
Describe what keeps you motivated in life.
God keeps me motivated in life. Likewise, my family keeps me motivated in
everything I do.
OBJECTIVES
Briefly describe unifying themes that pervade the science of biology.
The unifying theme that pervades the science of biology is Evolution, thus,
Evolution is the core theme of Biology.
Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels in biology.
Figure 0110
Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization.
With each step upward in the hierarchy of biological order, novel properties
emerge that were not present at the simpler levels of organization. These
emergent properties result from interactions between components. A
molecule such as a protein has attributes not exhibited by any of its
component atoms, and a cell is certainly much more than a bag of molecules.
if the intricate organization of the human brain is disrupted by a head injury,
that organ will cease to function properly, even though all its parts may still
be resent. And an organism is a living whole greater than the sum of its parts.
Describe seven emergent properties associated with life.
Order, Reproduction, growth and development, energy utilization, response
to the environment, homeostasis, evoluntionary adaption.
Explain how technological breakthroughs contributed to the formulation of
the
cell theory and our current knowledge of the cell.
Technological breakthrough contributed to the formulation of the cell theory
and our current knowledge of the cell because it made us understand better.
In 1665, Robert Hooke observed a slice of cork with a microscope that
magnified 30 times. He discovered cells. However, Anton van Leewenhoek
discovered single-celled using magnifying glasses as powerful as 300 times.
Yet, in 1839, Matthias Sohleiden and Theodor Scwann formed the basis of
what is known as the cell theory. Now, a powerful instrument called the
elctron microscope has revealed the complex strucfunctional compartments,
or organelles
Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells can be distinguish based on structural
organization. The cells of the microorganisms known as bacteria are
prokaryotic. All other forms of life are composed of eukaryotic cells.
Explain, in their own words, what is meant by "form fits function."
For example, the wings of a bird are built for it purpose. In other words, their
shape fits their purpose, which is to fly.
List the five kingdoms of life and distinguish among them.
I already know this objective because I studied it during Biology I honors.
Outline the scientific method.
I already know this objective because I studied it in every type of science I
took, such as Physical Science, Biology, and Chemistry.
Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning is reaching a generalization based on many concurring
observations.
Explain how science and technology are interdependent.
Science and technology are interdependent because technology, especially in
the form of instruments, extends our ability to observe and measure and
enables scientists to work on questions that were previously unapproachable.
In turn, technological inventions often apply the discoveries of science.
OBJECTIVES
Define element and compound.
An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into other
substances by chemical reactions while a compound is a pure substance
composed of two or more elements combined in a fixed ratio.
State four elements essential to life that make up 96% of living
matter.
Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen.
Describe the structure of an atom.
An atom contains a nucleus which is in the middle of the atom. The
nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Outside the nucleus is the valence
shell which has electrons.
Define and distinguish among atomic number, mass number, atomic
weight, and valence.
An atomic number is the number of protons in an atom of a particular
element. A mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in an
atom. An atomic weight is the weighted mean of the masses of an element’s
constituent isotopes. A valence is the outer part of an atom.
Given the atomic number and mass number of an atom, determine
the number of neutrons.
By subtracting the atomic number from mass number.
Explain the octet rule and predict how many bonds an atom might
form.
I already know this because I took Chemistry last year and we talked
about it.
Define electronegativity and explain how it influences the formation
of chemical bonds.
Electronegativity is the atom’s ability to attract and hold electrons.
Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic
bonds.
I already know this because I took Chemistry last year.
Describe the formation of a hydrogen bond and explain how it
differs from a covalent or ionic bond.
HYDROGEN BONDS ARE RELATIVELY WEAK INTERACTIONS
B/W A PARTIAL (+) HYDROGEN ATOM & PARTIAL (-) ATOM OF
ANOTHER POLAR MOLECULE. Please refer to the following
website.
http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/campbell_awl/c
hapter2/medialib/0214.jpg
OBJECTIVES
Explain how carbon’s electron configuration determines the kinds and
number of bonds carbon will form.
Carbon has a total of 6 electrons, with 2 in the 1st electron shell and 4 in the
2nd shell. Having four valence electrons in a shell that hold eight, carbon has
little tendency to gain or lose electrons and form ionic bonds; it would have to
donate or accept 4 electrons to do so. Instead, a carbon atom completes its
valence shell by sharing electrons with other atom in 4 covalent bonds
Describe how carbon skeletons may vary, and explain how this variation
contributes to the diversity and complexity of organic molecules.
Carbon chains form the skeletons of organic molecules. The skeleton vary in
length and may be straight, branched, or arranged in closed rings, some
carbon skeletons have double bonds, which vary in number and location.
Such variation in carbon skeletons is one important source of the molecular
complexity and diversity that characterize living matter.
Recognize the major functional groups, and describe the chemical properties
of organic molecules in which they occur.
The six functional groups most important in the chemistry of life are
hydroxyl, carbonyl, amino, sulfhydryl, and phosphate groups. Each fuctional
group behaves consistently from one organic molecule to another, and the
number and arrangement of the group helps give each molecule its unique
properties.
Objectives
List the four major classes of biomolecules.
Carbohydrates, amino acids, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Describe how covalent linkages are formed and broken in organic polymers.
Cells make macromolecules by lining relatively small molecules together,
forming chains called polymers. The classes of macromolecules differ in the
nature of their monomers, but the chemical mechanisms that cells use to make
and break polymers are basically the same for all macromolecules.
Monomers are connected by condensation reactions also called dehydration
reactions, in which two molecules become covalently bonded to usually water.
Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis.
Describe the distinguishing characteristics of carbohydrates, and explain how
they are classified.
Organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are called
carbohydrates. They usually contain these 3 molecules in a ratio of 1:2:1.
Most carbohydrates are classified as either monosaccharides, disaccharides,
or polysaccharides. Saccharides means “sugar”. The prefixes “mono-“, “di-“
and “poly-“ refer to the number of sugars in the molecule. Mono- means
“one”, di means “two”, and poly- means “many”
Identify a glycosidic linkage and describe how it is formed.
A disaccharide consists of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage,
a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides. Maltose is a
disaccharide formed by linking two molecules of glucose.
Describe the important biological functions of polysaccharides.
Polysaccharides are storage material, hydrolyzed as needed to provide sugar
to cells. Other polysaccharides serve as building material for structures
protecting the cells of the whole organisms.
Explain what distinguishes lipids from other major classes of macromolecules.
The compound called lipids are grouped together because they share one
important trait: They have little or no affinity for water.
Describe the unique properties, building block molecules and biological
importance of the three important groups of lipids: fats, phospholipids and
steroids.
A fat is constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty
acids. The molecular building blocks of fat are one molecules of fatty acids.
The biological importance of fats is energy storage. The unique properties of
phospholipids are structurally related two fats, but they have only two fatty
acids rather than three. Phospholipids contain two fatty acids “tails” and one
negatively charged phosphate head. The tail are hydrophobic while the heads
is hydrophilic.
Distinguish between a saturated and unsaturated fat
Saturated fatty acids is a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon
tail are connected by single bonds, thus, maximizing the number of hydrogen
atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton, while unsaturated fatty acid is a
fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the
hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms
attached to the carbon skeleton.
Describe the characteristics that distinguish proteins from the other major
classes of macromolecules, and explain the biologically important functions of
this group.
Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry weight of most cells, and they
are instrumental in almost everything organism do. Proteins are used for
structure support, storage, transport of other substances, signaling from one
part of the organism to another movement and defense against foreign
substances. As enzymes, proteins regulate metabolism.
List and recognize four major components of an amino acid
The four major components of an amino acid are: an amino group (-NH), a
carboxyl group (-COOH), a hydrogen, and an R group.
Explain what determines protein conformation
A protein’s specific conformation determines how it works. The function of a
protein depends on its ability to recognize and bind to some other molecule.
Define primary structure
The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids and
the level of protein structure referring to the specific sequence of amino acids.
Describe the two types of secondary protein structure
The two types of secondary protein structure is the alphas helix and pleated
sheet. The Alpha helix is a delicate oil held together by hydrogen bonding
between every fourth peptide bond. A pleated sheet is when the polypeptide
chain folds back and forth or where two regions of the chain lie parallel to
each other.
Explain how weak interactions and disulfide bridges contribute to tertiary
protein structure.
As a polypeptide folds into its functional conformation, amino acids with
hydrophobic side chains usually congregate at the core of the protein out of
contact with water. Hydrogen bonds between side chains of certain amino
acids and ionic bonds between positively and negatively charged side chains
also help stabilize tertiary structure. These are all weak interactions, but
their cumulative helps give the protein an specific shape. Much stronger are
the disulfide bridges, covalent bonds between the side chains of cysteine pairs.
Describe quaternary protein structure.
A Quaternary structure is the over all protein structure that results from the
aggregation of these polypeptide subunits. It is the association between two or
more polypeptides that make up protein. In the case of transthyretin, the
whole protein consists of four identical polypeptide subunits.
Define denaturation and explain how proteins may be denatured.
Denaturation is when the pH, salt concentation, temperature, or other aspects
of its environment are altered, when the protein may unravel and lose its
native conformation. Proteins may become denatured if they are transferred
from an aqueous environment to an organic solvent, the protein turns inside
out, its hydrophobic regions chaniging places with its hydrophilic portions,
and excessive heat.
Describe the characteristics that distinguish nucleic acids from the other
major groups of macromolecules.
The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of
inheritance known as a gene. Gene consists of DNA which is a polymers
belonging to the class of compounds known as nucleic acids. The two types of
nucleic acids deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleicacid (RNA)
Summarize the functions of nucleic acids.
The function of nucleic acids is to store and transmit hereditary information.
List the major components of a nucleotide.
Each nucleotide is itself composed of three parts: a phosphate group, which is
joined to a pentose (five-carbon sugar), which in turn is bonded to an organic
molecule called a nitrogenous base. In case of DNA, the pentose is a sugar
named deoxyribose, hence the designation deoxyribonucleic acid. Phosphate
and deoxyribose are common to all DNA nucleotides. The third component of
a nucleotide is the nitrogenous base.
Distinguish between a pyrimidine and a purine.
A pyrimidine is characterized by a six-membered ring made up of carbon and
nitrogen atoms. Purines are larger, with the six-membered ring fused to a
five-membered ring.
List the functions of nucleotides.
Pyrimidine and a purine.
Briefly describe the three-dimensional structure of DNA.
In a DNA strand, each nucleotide monomer has its phosphate group bonded
to the sugar of the next nucleotide. The polymer has a regular sugarphosphate backbone with variable appendages, the four kinds of nitrogenous
bases.
Objectives
Explain the role of catabolic and anabolic pathways in the energy exchanges
of cellular metabolism.
Metabolism is concerned with managing the material and energy resources of
the cell. Some metabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex
molecules to simpler compounds. These degradative processes are called
catabolic pathways. A major thorough fare of catabolism is cellular
respiration, in which the sugar glucose and other organic fuels are broken
down to carbon dioxide and water. There are also anabolic pathways which
consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy.
Kinetic energy is anything that moves that possesses a form of energy or the
energy of motion. Potential energy is energy that matter possesses because of
its location or structure or stored energy.
Explain, in their own words, the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics.
According to the First Law of Thermodynamics, the energy of the universe is
constant. Energy can be transferred and transformed but it can be neither
created nor destroyed. The second law of thermodynamics can be stated in
many ways. Every energy transfer or transformation makes the universe
more disordered. Energy transfers or transformation increases the entropy of
the universe.
Describe the function of ATP in the cell.
Energy released by breaking down reactions (catabolism) in the cell is used to
phophorylate ADP, regenerating ATP. Energy stored in ATP drives most
cellular work. Thus, ATP couples the cells energy-consuming ones.
List the three components of ATP and identify the major class of
macromolecules of which it belongs.
ATP consists of the nitrogeneous base adenine bonded to ribose, a five-carbon
sugar. In a nucleotide, one phosphate group is attached to the sugar.
Explain how ATP performs cellular work.
ATP powers cellular work by coupling cell does three main kinds of work,
mechanic work, transport work, and chemical work.
Explain the relationship between enzyme structure and enzyme specificity.
Most of the crucial reactions that occur in the cell requires enzymes. Yet,
enzymes themselves are awfully picky- infact, each enzyme catalyzes only one
reaction. This is known as enzyme specificity.
Explain the induced fit model of enzyme function and describe the catalytic
cycle of an enzyme.
Explain how substrate concentration affects the rate of an enzyme-controlled
reaction.
Explain how enzyme activity can be regulated or controlled by environmental
conditions, cofactors, enzyme inhibitors and allosteric regulators.
The activity of an enzyme is affected by general environment factors, such as
temperature and pH, and also by particular chemicals that specifically
influence that enzyme.
Distinguish between allosteric activation and cooperativity.
Allosteric activation are substrates molecules that may stimulate the catalytic
powers of an enzyme, while a cooperativity is a mechanism that amplifies the
response of enzymes to substrate.
Unit II
Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cells don’t have a nuclei or other membrane enclosed organelles, and eukaryotic cells
have a membrane enclosed nuclei and other specialized organelles in their cytoplasm.
Describe the structure and function of the nucleus, and briefly explain how the nucleus
the nucleus controls protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
The nucleus contains most of the genes that control the cell. The nuclear envelope encloses the
nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm. The nuclear side of the envelope is lined by the
nuclear lamina, a netlike array of protein filaments that maintains the shape of the nucleus. Within the
nucleus, the DNA is organized along with proteins into material called chromatin. The nucleus controls
protein synthesis in the cytoplasm by sending molecular messengers in the form of ribonucleic acid
(RNA).
Describe the structure and function of a eukaryotic ribosome.
Ribosomes are the sites where the cell assembles proteins. They build proteins in two cytoplasmic
locales. Free ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol, while bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of
a membranous network called the endoplasmic reticulum.
List the components of the endomembrane system, describe their structures and
functions and summarize the relationships among them.
The endomembrane system is the collection of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell,
related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles. The endoplasmic
reticulum manufactures membranes and performs many other biosynthetic functions.
Describe the vacuole & list types of vacuoles
Vacuoles have diverse functions in cell maintenance. A plant cell’s central vacuole functions in
storage, waste disposal, cell growth, and protection. Food vacuole are formed by phagocytosis, contractile
vacuoles pump excess water out of the cell.
Explain the role of peroxisomes in eukaryotic cells.
Peroxisomes are microbodies containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates
to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide.
Describe the structure & function of a mitochondrion
The mitochondrion is enclosed in an envelope of two membranes; each aphospholipid bilayer
with a unique collection of embedded proteins. The mitochondria is the site of cellular respiration in
eukaryotes, and one of the main energy transformers of cells.
Identify the three functional compartments of a chloroplast
Thylakoids, grana, and stroma are three functional compartments of a chloroplast.
Describe probable functions of the cytoskeleton.
The cytoskeleton gives the cell shape, anchors some organelles and directs the movement of
others, and may enable the entire cell to change shape or move.
Describe the structure, monomers and functions of microtubules, microfilaments and
intermediate filaments.
Microtubules are straight hollow rods that shape and support the cell and also serve as tracks
along which organelles equipped with motor molecules can move. Microfilaments are solid rods that are
part of the contractile apparatus in muscle cells, and intermediate filaments are what holds the network of
microfilaments.
Explain how the ultrastructure of cilia and flagella relates to their function.
The cilia and flagella are locomotive appendages that protrude from some cells. They function to
draw fluid over the surface of a tissue layer. Cilia usually occur in large numbers on the cell surface, and
flagella are usually limited to just one or a few per cell. A cilium or flagellum has a core of microtubules
ensheathed in an extension of the plasma membrane.
Describe the structure of intercellular junctions found in plant and animal cells, and
relate their structure to function.
The many cells of an animal or plant are integrated into one functional organism. Neighboring cells often
adhere, interact, and communicate through special patches of direct physical contact.
CHAPTER 8
MEMBRANE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Describe the function of the plasma membrane.
The membrane at the boundary of every cell that acts as a selective barrier, thereby regulating the
cell's chemical composition.
Describe the fluid properties of the cell membrane and explain how membrane fluidity is influenced
by membrane composition.
Lipids move laterally (that is, in two dimensions) in a membrane, but flip-flopping across the
membrane (in the third dimension) is rare. Unsaturarted hydrocarbon tails of phospholipids have kinks
that keep the molecules from packing together, enhancing membrane fluidity. Cholesterol reduces
membrane fluidity at moderate temperatures but prevents membrane solidification at cold temperatures.
Explain how hydrophobic interactions determine membrane structure and function.
A membrane is held together primarily by hydrophobic interactions, which are much weaker than
covalent bonds. It is rare; however, for a molecule to flip-flop transversely across the membrane,
switching from one phospholipids layer to the other; to do so, the hydrophilic part of the molecule would
have to cross the hydrophilic part of the molecule would have to cross the hydrophobic core of the
membrane.
Describe how proteins are spatially arranged in the cell membrane and how they contribute to
membrane function.
Proteins determine most of the membrane's specific functions. Integral proteins penetrate far
enough into the membrane for their hydrophobic regions to be surrounded by the hydrocarbon tails of
lipids. Peripheral proteins are not embedded in the lipids bilayer at all; they are appendages attached to
the surface of the membrane, often to the exposed parts of integral proteins.
Describe factors that affect selective permeability of membranes.
The cell is able to take up many varieties of small molecules and exclude others. Moreover,
substances that move through the membrane do so at different rates.
Define diffusion; explain what causes it and why it is a spontaneous process.
The tendency for molecules of any substance to spread to into the available space. Diffusion is a
spontaneous process because it decreases free energy.
Explain what regulates the rate of passive transport.
In the absence of other forces, a substance will diffuse from where it is more concentrated to where
it is less concentrated.
Define osmosis and predict the direction of water movement based upon differences in solute
concentration.
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. Water will move from a
hypotonic to a hypertonic solution even if the hypotonic solution has more kinds of solutes.
Describe how living cells with and without walls regulate water balance.
Plant cells have walls and are turgid (firm) and generally healthiest in a hypotonic environment,
where the tendency for continued intake of water is balanced by the elastic wall pushing back on the cell.
On the other hand, animal cells don’t have a cell wall. A cell without rigid walls can tolerate neither
excessive uptake nor excessive loss of water. This problem of water balance is automatically solved if
such a cell lives in isotonic surroundings or if they have special adaptations for osmoregulation.
Describe one model for facilitated diffusion.
Facilitated diffusion is the spontaneous passage of molecules and ions, bound to specific carrier
proteins, across a biological membrane down their concentration gradients. A model for facilitated
diffusion is when the transport protein alternates between two conformations, moving a solute across the
membrane as the shape of the protein changes. The protein can transport the solute in either direction,
with the net movement being down the concentration gradient of the solute.
Explain how active transport differs from diffusion.
Active transport is the movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its
concentration or electrochemical gradient, with the help of energy input and specific transport proteins.
Diffusion is simply the tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from a more
concentrated to a less concentrated area.
Explain how large molecules are transported across the cell membrane.
Large molecules are transported across the cell membrane by exocytosis and endocytosis.
Exocytosis is the cellular secretion of macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma
membrane. Endocytosis is the cellular uptake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized
regions of plasma membrane that surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle.
Give an example of receptor-mediated endocytosis.
In receptor mediated endocytosis, coated pits form vesicles when specific molecules bind to receptors on
the cell surface. After the ingested material is liberated from the vesicle for metabolism, the receptors are recycled to
the plasma membrane.
CHAPTER 12
THE CELL CYCLE
Overview the major events of cell division that enable the genome of one cell to be passed on to two
daughter cells.
http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/campbell_awl/chapter12/medialib/1203.jpg
Describe how chromosome number changes throughout the human life cycle.
Chromosomes replicate once, but the diploid parent cell divides twice to form four haploid daughter cells.
List the phases of the cell cycle and describe the sequence of events that occurs during each phase.
http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/campbell_awl/chapter12/medialib/1204.jpg.
G1: It's just growing
S (DNA Synthesis): When the DNA is developed
G2: Continuing of growth
Mitosis: It makes a replica.
List the phases of mitosis and describe the events characteristic of each phase.
Prophase: The chromosomes begin to condense.
Metaphase: Spindle fibers from one pole of the cell attach to one chromosome of each pair, while spindle fibers
from the opposite pole attach to the homologue.
Anaphase: Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromeres and move as a single unit toward the opposite
pole.
Telophase: Each pole now has a haploid chromosome set, but each chromosome set, but each chromosome still has
two chromatids.
Recognize the phases of mitosis from diagrams or micrographs.
http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/campbell_awl/chapter12/medialib/120501.jpg.
http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/campbell_awl/chapter12/medialib/120502.jpg.
Describe what characteristic changes occur in the spindle apparatus during each phase of mitosis.
It keeps separating, until it's two distinct cells in the telophase
Compare cytokinesis in animals and plants.
Animals: The cytokinesis will at one point rupture, if it gets to full, due to the weakness of the cell wall
Plants: The cytokinesis will grow but never burst due to the cell wall's rigid ness.
Describe the process of binary fission in bacteria and how this process may have evolved to mitosis
in eukaryotes.
http://occawlonline.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/campbell_awl/chapter12/medialib/1210.jpg.
Explain how abnormal cell division of cancerous cells differs from normal cell division.
The abnormal cell division does not stop growing, it continues indefinitely, as well as, it never dies. The
lifespan is that also of indefinite. While the normal cell division, knows when to stop, and at one point in its life it
will degenerate and die off.