Download My Big List Thing

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Absence seizure (petit mal seizure): momentary lapse in consciousness lasting seconds or tens of seconds with
emotionless expression and sometimes purposeless movements (jerking, shaking), after which a flash of vision
occurs
Amphiphile: molecule possessing both hydrophobic (at its “tail”) and hydrophilic (at its “head”) tendencies
Anatomic location:
o Axes
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Anteroposterior (AP, rostrocaudal, craniocaudal, cephalocaudal) axis: head end (anterior, rostral [beak],
superior [above], cranial, cephalic) to rear (posterior, tail, caudal, inferior [below] [tail]); perpendicular
to AP axis at all times
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Dorsoventral (DV) axis: Ventral (belly) to dorsal (spinal cord)
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Left-right (dextro-snister) axis: left to right side of body
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Mediolateral axis: Middle of body (medial) to outside of body (lateral)
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Proximodistal axis: Tip of appendage (distal) to where appendage meets body (proximal)
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Skull: agreed by convention to be on the Frankfurt plane in humans
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Frankfurt plane: plane made by lower margins of orbits and upper margins of ear canals; good
approximation of subject standing erect and facing forwards
o Planes
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Sagittal (median): divides body into sinister and dexter sides
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Coronal (frontal): divides body into dorsal and ventral sides
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Transverse (horizontal): divides body into anterior and posterior portions
Angiogenesis: outgrowth of capillaries from vessels, originating in angioblasts
Angiopoietin: growth factor proteins (Ang1-4) involved in angiogenesis
Apical membrane: Inner surface of membrane in polarized cells (e.g. epi-/endothelial, neuron); c.f. basolateral
Arteriovenous malformation (AVM): Connection b/w veins and arteries
Ataxia [without order]: neurological disorder defined by lack of muscle movement coordination; caused by
cerebellar damage
ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC-transporter): transmembrane protein which transport many substrates (e.g.
metabolic products, lipids, sterols, drugs) across extra- and intracellular membrantes
Basolateral membrane: Outer surface of membrane in polarized cells (e.g. epi-/endothelial, neuron); c.f. apical
Blood pressure (BP): measure of pressure placed on vascular walls; measured in mmHg (millimeters of Hg), listed
as x/y where x is systolic (peak) and y is diastolic (resting)
o Hypertension (HTN): excessive BP; can be essential (primary) or secondary; secondary means the HTN is
from another condition
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Prehypertension: BP between 120/80 and 139/89
Cardiac arrythmia (dysrythmia): electric over- or underactivity in heart; beats too slowly or too quickly; can kill or
be harmless depending on severity; disposes towards stroke/embolus
Cell junction: protein complexes binding cells together, especially common in endothelium
Chondrocyte: only cells found in cartilage; produce cartilaginous matrix, consisting of collagen and proteoglycans
Collagen: connective tissue protein; most abundant protein in mammals, makes up 25% of protein content
Coronary artery: artery which supports the heart itself
Cytoplasm: Contents of a cell within its membrane
o Cytosol (intracellular fluid, ICF): cytoplasm minus organelles
Cytoskeleton (CSK): cellular skeleton; enables movement and intracellular transport
Edema (swelling): Increase in interstitial fluid
Embolism: Object from one part of body circulates to other part (contrast to clot), blocking blood vessel
Endocytosis: engulfing material from outside by enveloping it w/membrane
o Phagocytosis: cell-eating
o Pinocytosis: uptake of solutes and single molecules
o Receptor-mediated: Membrane buds inwards, forming cytoplasmic vesicle
Extracellular matrix (ECM): extracellular tissue that holds cells together; defining feature of connective tissue in
animals
o Basal lamina: layer formed of laminin and collagen on which epithelium rests; secreted by epithelium
o Fibroblast: cell which synthesizes collagen in ECM by secreting collagen and ground substance
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Fibroblast growth factor (FGF): growth factor involved in angiogenesis, wound healing and embryonic
dev; responsible for fibroblast growth
o Ground substance: part of ECM that isn’t collagenic; water, glycoproteins, proteoglycans, matrix proteins;
gelatinous
o Proteoglycan: heavily glycosylated protein; found in ECM; regulate movement of molecules through ECM
Filopodium: bundles of actin in migrating cells, connected by actin-binding proteins (e.g. fibrin); extended at the
leading edge of migratory cell; link to substratum at end of migratory path, after which cell is pulled in place
Foramen: any type of opening
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Glioma: CNS tumor arising from glial cells
o Classified by type of cell responsible: ependyoma (ependymal cells), astrocytoma (astrocytes),
oligodendroglioma (oligodendrocytes); mixed types (e.g. oligodendroglioma) involve different cell types
Glycan: chain of monosaccharides; oligo- or polysaccharides
o Glycosylation: linking of saccharides, either free or attached to lipids/proteins, to produce glycans
Glycoprotein: glycosylated protein
o Proteoglycan: heavily glycosylated protein; c.f. ECM
Hypoxia: deficiency of oxygen
o Ischemia: restriction of blood supply (and thereby oxygen)
o External hypoxia: result of environment e.g. high altitudes
Interstitial fluid (tissue fluid, intercellular fluid): liquid surrounding cells
Kinase (phosphotransferase): enzyme that transfers phosphate from high-energy donors (e.g. ATP) to substrates;
process is phosphorylation
o Protein kinase: most common kinase, modify activity of proteins to transmit signals
Metabolism [meta = over, ballein = throw]: chemical reactions in organisms; organized into metabolic pathways
o Catabolism [cata = down]: Dissembling of large molecules
o Anabolism [ana = up]: Assembling of molecules
o Metabolic syndrome (X): combination of factors leading to cardiovascular disease or diabetes
Metastasis: spread of disease from one organ/part to another non-adjacent organ/part, occurs primarily with
malignant cancer
Mitosis: cell division
o Mitogen: substance, usually protein, which induces cell division by activating MAP3K
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MAP3K (MKKK): Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase kinase, which activates MAP2K, which in
turn activates MAP kinase, which in turn causes further signaling
o MAP cascade: Cascade of at least three proteins resulting in the phosphorylation and activation of a MAP
kinase.
Motility: directed cell movement
Myocte: Muscle cell; can be smooth, skeletal or cardiac
Myopathy [myo = muscle]: neuromuscular disease in which muscle fibers don’t function resulting in weakness;
primary defect is in muscle
Nerve growth factor (NGF): protein which differentiates target neurons and assists them in survival
Nervous system: system of neurons receiving many stimuli within and outside of nervous system; coordinates
many organic functions
o Central nervous system (CNS): Brain and brainstem
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Brain [encephalon, in the skull]: Rhombencephalon (hindbrain), mesencephalon (midbrain),
prosencephalon (forebrain), meninges, ventricles, cranial nerves, blood-brain barrier
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Rhombencephalon [rhomb = spinning top]: Myelencephalon, metencephalon
o Myelencephalon: medulla oblongata, part of fourth ventricle, glossopharyngeal nerve (CN
IX), vagus nerve (CN X), accessory nerve (CN XI), hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) and part of
vestibulocochlear nerve (CN XIII)
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Medulla oblongata: responsible for autonomic function; lower portion of brainstem
anterior to SC, posterior to pons; has open part closer to pons whose “opening” is part of
fourth ventricle, and closed part closer to SC
o ventromedial (anteriomedial) fissure: fold along length of medulla; contains
fold of pia matter; ends at lower border of pons at triangular expansion named
foramen cecum [cecum = blind]
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lower part is interrupted by fibers decussating; this constitutes pyramidal
decussation
o Metencephalon: pons, cerebellum, part of fourth ventricle, trigeminal nerve (V), abducens
nerve (VI), facial nerve (VII), part of vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)
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Pons: anterior to medulla; contains reticular formation; mostly white matter
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Locus coeruleus: Located in dorsorostral pons; mass transmits NorE across brain;
receives input from medial frontal based on activity of subject, hypothalamus,
nucleus paragigantocellularis
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Mesencephalon: Tectum, mesencephalic duct, cerebral penducle, midbrain tegmentum, pretectum
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Prosencephalon: diencephalon, telencephalon
o Diencephalon: thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, prethalamus, pretectum, third ventricle,
and pituitary gland; located at midline of brain, above brainstem
o Telencephalon (cerebrum): cerebral cortex, basal ganglia
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Frontal lobe: motor programming, planning, decision-making, logical reasoning
o Brodmann’s Area 44 [BA44], aka Broca’s Area: language production
Ventral premotor [PMv]: Analogous to BA44
Dorsal premotor [PMd]: simultaneous programming of simultaneous
movement
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Temporal lobe: responsible for audition, memory
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Hippocampus: responsible for declarative memory, short-term memory
o Superior temporal sulcus [STS]: visual information entry area; responds to
biologically relevant actions, incl. Pictures
o Medial temporal gyrus [MTG]: subserves language and semantic memory
processing, visual perception, and multimodal sensory integration
o Fusiform gyrus: facial recognition, color information processing,
abstraction, word and number recognition; activated in instances of
synesthesia
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Parietal [parietus = wall] lobe: somatosensation
Meninges: line and protect the CNS; have three layers and three spaces
o Dura matter [hard mother]: tough outer layer; contains two layers, an outer pericraneum and
inner dura mater proper
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Tentorium cerebelli [tent of the cerebellum]: dura mater separating cerebellum from
inferior occipital lobe
o Arachnoid layer: middle vascular layer; returns CSF from base of spinal cord back to brain
o Subarachnoid space (cavity): between arachnoid layer and pia matter; found in triangular
spaces formed by gyri where arachnoid layer and pia matter are not as close; consists of
trabeculæ which extend from arachnoid space and blend into pia matter; CSF flows through
channels between trabeculæ; is active in blood brain barrier; continues into spinal cord with
arachnoid matter and functions similarly there
o Pia matter [tender mother]: delicate innermost layer lining brain; remnant of neural crest;
joined to dura mater in SC by denticular ligaments
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Denticular ligaments: connect pia mater to dura mater in SC; named for toothlike
appearance
Ventricles: fluid-filled structures; produce CSF through ependymal cells
o Lateral ventricles: C-shaped, wrapped around dorsal part of basal ganglia; extends into the
frontal, temporal and occipital lobes via the frontal, temporal and occipital horns respectively;
occipital and frontal horns don’t produce CSF though the rest does; six layers of embryonic
neocortex emerge from here
o Third ventricle: found within diencephalons; communicates with fourth ventricle through
cerebral aqueduct
o Fourth ventricle: found within hindbrain; connected to subarachnoid space by foramen of
Magendie and foramina of Luschka allowing CSF to brainstem, cerebella and neocortex; also
connected to central canal allowing CSF to inside of SC
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Lateral recess: fourth ventricle projecting into inferior cerebellar penducle in brainstem
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Median aperture (foramen of Magendie): opening connecting fourth ventricle to
subarachnoid space; allows CSF to escape to cisterna magna
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Lateral aperture (foramina of Luschka, LAV4): openings in lateral extremities of lateral
recess of fourth ventricle
o Interventricular foramina (foramina of Monro): channels that connect paired lateral ventricles
to third ventricle at midline of brain; located at medial and inferior aspect of lateral ventricles,
bound by fornix and thalamus; allow CSF produced in lateral ventricles to reach third ventricle
and thereby rest of ventricular system; contain choroid plexus
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Choroid plexus (CP): area in ventricles where CSF is produced by ependymal cells; one
in each ventricle; consists of many capillaries separated from ventricules by choroid
epithelial cells; liquid filtered from capillaries becomes CSF, allowing in sodium,
chloride and biocarbonate ions as well as water; has large surface areas due to villi in
frond shape and microvilli increasing CP surface area; filters CSF by removing waste
products and extra NTs
o Cerebral aqueduct (mesenphalic duct, aqueductus mesenphali, aqueduct of Sylvus): contains
CSF; within mesencephalon, connects third ventricle to fourth ventricle
Cranial nerves
o Olfactory (I) nerve: projects from olfactory epithelium into olfactory bulb
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Olfactory epithelium: specialized epithelial cells on roof of nasal cavity 7cm behind
nostrils; 2cm x 5cm area; olfactory cells congregate to form olfactory nerve
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Olfactory bulb: layers of glomeruli, mitral cells and granule cells, in order of ext->int;
output to olfactory cortex, input from amygdala, cortex, HP, SN and locus coeruleus;
enhances discrimination between odors and sensitivity, filters out noise, allows
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Olfactory glomerulus: globular collection of axons from 5-10k olfactory receptor
neurons of only one receptor type per glomerulus; output to 10-25 mitral cells whose
dendrites enter the glomeruli; large input allows detection of faint odors
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Accessory olfactory bulb: dorsal to main olfactory bulb; receives input from
vomeronasal organ; projects to amygdala and hippocampus
o Optic (II) nerve: projects from retinal ganglia to optic chasim, part of fibers corresponding to
center of field of vision (nasal field) decussate, project to lateral geniculate nucleus of
thalamus; considered part of CNS since it derives from diencephalon (thalamus)
o Oculomotor (III) nerve: conveys eye motor information; arises from anterior midbrain; travels
between posterior and superior cerebral arteries, through free margin of tentorium cerebelli
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Oculomotor nucleui: send information controlling extraocular muscles to the oculomotor
nerve; project from anterior superior colliculi in the periaqueductal gray
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Levator palpebrae superioris: Lifts eyelid
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Superior rectus: Elevates eye
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Inferior rectus: Depresses eye
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Medial rectus: Adduces eye
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Inferior oblique: Rotates eye away from body (extorsion)
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Edinger-Westphal nucleus: sends parasympathetic information; located near oculomotor
nuclei; projects to ciliary ganglion, controlling sphincter pupillae muscle and ciliary
muscle
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Sphincter pupillae: dilates pupil
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Ciliary [celare = to conceal]: Changes shape of lens to accommodate eye to view
objects at distances
o Trochlear [trochlea = pulley] (IV) nerve: controls eye movement through the superior oblique
muscle, moving the eye vertically; originates in rostral tegmental periaqueductal gray; projects
below the inferior colliculus, circles around to anterior of brainstem, moves anterior toward
eye in subarachnoid space, passes between superior posterior cerebral arteries, pierces free
margin of tentorium cerebelli, joins internal carotid artery and occulomotor (II) and abducens
(VI) nerves in cavernous sinus, pulls superior oblique muscle over front of eye by pulley
(trochlea)
o Trigeminal [geminare = to produce] (V) nerve: afferent tactile, proprioceptive and nociceptive
information from face; efferent control of facial muscles; has three branches
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Opthalamic nerve (V1): sensory fibers only; has three branches
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Nasociliary nerve: controls corneal eyeblink reflex (re: foreign object, bright light)
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Tensor tympani: tenses tympanic membrane, reducing amplitude of sounds, typically
responding to chewing
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Tensor veli palatini: below soft palate; aids in chewing; regulates Eustachian tube which
regulates pressure in the ear
o Abducens [abduce = to draw away; ab = away, ducere = to lead] (VI) nerve: controls the
lateral rectus, abducting eye;
o Peripheral nervous system (PNS): nervous system outside of brain and spinal cord; majority of neurons are
here
Neurite: extension of cell body of neuron; can be axon or dendrite; typically used re: immature neurons due to
difficulty in determining which is being observed
Neuropilin: receptors in neurons which receive semaphorins and VEGF
Orbit: cavity in skull for eye and its appendages; human orbit takes up 30ml, eye takes up 6.5ml.
Palsy: paralysis of a body part (symptom)
Paraneoplastic syndrome: disease resulting from cancer in the body apart from where disease occurs, typically
conveyed by humors excreted from tumor cells or an immune response to the tumor
Periosteum [peri = around, osteon = bone]: membrane lining all bones, except for joins of long bones; formed
mostly of collagen
o Pericranium: another name for periosteum around the skull
Phosphatase: enzyme which removes phosphate group from substrate
Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF): numerous growth factors, or proteins that regulate cell growth and
division; significant in angiogenesis
Schwann cell: mylenating glial cell in PNS; can myelinate one and only one axon (unlike CNS oligodendrocytes);
can regenerate nerves
Status epilepticus (SE): life-threatening condition in which the brain is in a state of persistent seizure; defined as
one continuous unremitting seizure lasting longer than 5-10 minutes, or recurrent seizures without regaining
consciousness between seizures for greater than 30 minutes
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Stellar cells: neuron w/many dendrites extending in all directions (hence the name); cerebellar stellar cells synapse
onto Perkunje cells
Substrate: molecule upon which enzyme acts
Vasculogenesis: de novo creation of vasculature