Download Operant Conditioning

Learning
7
Learning
 Learning Objectives
 Chapter Outline
 Key Terms
 Key Contributors
 Teaching the Chapter
 Lecture/Discussion Suggestions
 Classroom Activities
 Experiencing Psychology
 Critical Thinking Questions
 Video/Media Suggestions
 References
 Sources of Biographical Information
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, the student should be able to:
7.1
Define learning and distinguish learning from reflexes, instincts, and the behavioral changes resulting
from maturation. (p. 211-212)
7.2
Summarize the history of interest in classical conditioning. (p. 212-213)
7.3
List and explain the major concepts of classical conditioning by referring to Pavlov’s classic
experiment of the conditioning of the salivary response in a dog. (p. 213)
7.4
Describe higher-order conditioning and give examples. (p. 213-214)
7.5
List and explain four important factors affecting the strength of classical conditioning, offering
examples of each. (p. 214-215)
7.6
Explain the difference between stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination. (p. 215)
7.7
Explain how extinction happens, and how spontaneous recovery may occur. (p. 215-216)
105
Chapter Seven
7.8
Summarize the classic “Little Albert” study, and then describe how classical conditioning may be
applied in understanding the features of drug dependence and taste aversions. (p.216-219)
7.9
Summarize what is known about the biological constraints on classical conditioning. (p. 219-220)
7.10 Explain the core concept of operant conditioning and summarize the history of interest in this type of
learning. (p. 220-221)
7.11 Define behavioral contingency and then list and offer examples of four concepts related to positive
reinforcement. (p. 221-222)
7.12 Distinguish between shaping and chaining, giving examples of each. (p. 222-223)
7.13 Distinguish between continuous and partial schedules of reinforcement, describing the four types of
partial schedules, and explain how they influence the performance of a behavior. (p. 223-225)
7.14 Define negative reinforcement and describe two forms of negative reinforcement. (p. 225-226)
7.15 Distinguish between extinction versus punishment as techniques that decrease the probability of a
behavior, emphasizing the special issues that surround the use of punishment to change behavior.
(p. 226-227)
7.16 Describe five areas where operant conditioning principles have been applied to change behavior.
(p. 228-232)
7.17 Summarize what is known about the biological constraints on operant learning, mentioning
instinctive drift and biological preparedness. (p. 232-233)
7.18 Explain the significance of prediction, expectancy, and blocking in the cognitive perspective on
learning. (p. 233-235)
7.19 Explain the significance of the classic Tolman study of latent learning and Bandura’s work on
observational learning and social learning theory in supporting the cognitive view of learning.
(p. 235-238)
Extended Chapter Outline
I. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov is credited with stimulating research on associative learning.
A. Principles of Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning, a stimulus comes to elicit a response that it would not
normally elicit.
1. Acquisition of the Classically Conditioned Response
In classical conditioning a stimulus (the conditioned stimulus) comes to elicit a
response (the conditioned response) that it would not normally elicit by being
paired with a stimulus (the unconditioned stimulus) that already elicits that
response (the unconditioned response).
106
Learning
a. Higher-Order Conditioning
This is the result of associating a neutral stimulus with an existing CS.
b. Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning
The greater the intensity of the UCS and the greater the number of
pairings, the stronger the conditioning.
2. Stimulus Generalization and Stimulus Discrimination in Classical Conditioning
Stimulus generalization occurs when the CR follows in response to stimuli that
are similar to the CS. Stimulus discrimination occurs when the individual
responds to the CS but not to stimuli that are similar to the CS.
3. Extinction
Extinction refers to the process by which the CS diminishes and eventually
stops occurring if a CS is repeatedly presented without presenting the UCS.
When a CR that has been subjected to extinction is again elicited by a CS, the
process is called spontaneous recovery.
B. Applications of Classical Conditioning
Applications of classical conditioning include explaining phobias, explaining drug
dependence, and the acquisition of taste aversions.
1. Classical Conditioning and Phobias
Unpleasant noises have classically conditioned children to develop phobias.
2. Classical Conditioning and Drug Dependence
The physiological effects of drug use may classically condition drug users to be dependent on
drugs.
3. Classical Conditioning and Taste Aversions
The taste of previously eaten foods has been associated with nausea, thus causing the
phenomenon of classically conditioned taste aversion.
C. Biological Constraints on Classical Conditioning
Not all stimuli and responses are equally associable.
II. Operant Conditioning
The roots of operant conditioning can be traced to Edward Thorndike’s law of effect, which states that
a behavior followed by a satisfying state of affairs is strengthened and a behavior followed by an
annoying state of affairs is weakened.
A. Principles of Operant Conditioning
Skinner refers to the relationships between behaviors and their consequences as “behavioral
contingencies.”
1. Positive Reinforcement
A behavior that is followed by the presentation of a desirable stimulus becomes more likely
to occur in the future. The Premack principle states that a more probable behavior can be
used as a reinforcer for a less probable one. Primary reinforcers are biological and
unlearning; secondary reinforcers are learned through association with a primary reinforcer.
A discriminative stimulus informs an individual when a behavior is likely to be reinforced.
a. Shaping and Chaining.
Shaping is reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior. Chaining is a
procedure used to establish a series of behaviors.
b. Schedules of Reinforcement
With a continuous schedule, every desired behavior is reinforced. With partial
reinforcement, reinforcement is given for some of the desired behaviors. Partial
schedules may be fixed or variable and may reinforce after a number of responses (ratio)
or after a time period (interval).
107
Chapter Seven
2. Negative Reinforcement
A behavior that brings about the removal of an aversive stimulus becomes more likely to
occur in the future. Escape and avoidance learning are two types of negative reinforcement.
3. Extinction
Behaviors learned through operant conditioning are subject to extinction.
4. Punishment
Punishment decreases the probability of a behavior by presenting an undesirable consequence
of that behavior.
B. Applications of Operant Conditioning
Applications of operant conditioning include animal training, child rearing, improvements in
education, the understanding and treating of certain psychological disorders, and biofeedback.
1. Operant Conditioning and Animal Training
Skinner and his colleagues have been pioneers in using and shaping and chaining to train
animals to perform behaviors that are not part of their normal repertoires.
2. Operant Conditioning and Child Rearing
Parents have used operant conditioning to eliminate undesirable behaviors and reinforce
desirable behaviors.
3. Operant Conditioning and Educational Improvement
Teachers have used positive reinforcement to improve classroom performances of their
students. Such instances include the token economy, programmed instruction, and computerassisted instruction.
4. Operant Conditioning and Psychological Disorders
Operant conditioning, specifically learned helplessness, has enhanced the understanding of
depression and has also been used to change abnormal behaviors, in a process known as
behavior modification.
5. Operant Conditioning and Biofeedback
Biofeedback is a form of operant conditioning that enables an individual to learn to control a
normally involuntary physiological process or to gain better control of a normally voluntary
one when provided with visual or auditory information indicating the state of that response.
C. Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning
The Brelands found instinctive drift in operantly conditioned animals. Seligman has found that
there is a continuum of preparedness for certain behaviors, ranging from prepared to unprepared
to contraprepared.
III. Cognitive Learning
In the past few decades, many psychologists have criticized the associationistic explanation of
learning for viewing human and animal learners as passive reactors.
A. Cognitive Factors in Associative Learning
According to cognitive theorists, secondary reinforcers gain their ability to reinforce behaviors
because they predict the occurrence of primary reinforcers. Another source of support for the
cognitive explanation is the phenomenon of blocking.
B. Latent Learning
Cognitive theorists maintain that learning can occur without revealing itself in observable
behavior.
C. Observational Learning
Bandura has identified four factors in observational learning: attention, memory, ability, and
motivation.
108
Learning
Key Concepts
Classical Conditioning
classical conditioning
conditioned response (CR)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
conditioned taste aversion
extinction
higher-order conditioning
learning
spontaneous recovery
stimulus discrimination
stimulus generalization
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
unconditioned response (UCR)
Operant Conditioning
avoidance learning
behavioral contingencies
behavioral preparedness
biofeedback
chaining
computer-assisted instruction
continuous schedule of
reinforcement
discriminative stimulus
escape learning
extinction
fixed-interval schedule of
reinforcement
fixed-ratio schedule of
reinforcement
instinctive drift
instrumental conditioning
law of effect
learned helplessness
negative reinforcement
operant conditioning
partial schedule of
reinforcement
positive reinforcement
Premack principle
primary reinforcer
programmed instruction
punishment
secondary reinforcer
shaping
Skinner box
spontaneous recovery
token economy
variable-interval schedule of
reinforcement
variable-ratio schedule of
reinforcement
Cognitive Learning
blocking
latent learning
observational learning
social learning theory
Key Contributors
Classical Conditioning
Ilene Bernstein
John Garcia
Ivan Pavlov
John B. Watson
Operant Conditioning
Neal Miller
David Premack
Martin Seligman
B.F. Skinner
Edward Thorndike
Cognitive Learning
Albert Bandura
Robert Rescorla
Edward Tolman
109
Chapter Seven
Teaching the Chapter
There are generally three problems associated with teaching the chapter on learning. The first is that
students do not readily see the role that conditioning plays in their lives—sometimes they will actively
reject the idea that they can be so easily conditioned. This is easily overcome by the generous use of
examples of conditioning that occur in everyday life. Some examples include the development of
conditioned fears such as to rats, snakes, elevators, open spaces, etc., and the development of habits such as
eating while watching television. One other example familiar to students who have pets is how quickly their
pets will come when the food bowl is rattled or the can opener is operated (if canned food is used).
Additionally, students may view psychology as a science that is designed to develop new manipulation
techniques. You may want to point out that conditioning happens all the time. Psychology is describing a
naturally occurring process.
The second problem is that most students have trouble understanding the difference between negative
reinforcement and punishment. Careful attention to the presentation of this material and the use of examples
should alleviate this problem.
The third problem is that students may struggle with seeing the differences between operant and classical
conditioning. Emphasize that classical conditioning is the association between two stimuli whereas operant
conditioning is the association between a behavior and a stimulus.
This is an ideal chapter in which to teach students the skills to apply behavior modification principles to
their own behavior. One of the better self-help books that you might recommend is Towards a SelfManaged Lifestyle, by Williams and Long (3rd ed.). You might also spend some time discussing tips for
learning in any situation (otherwise known as study skills). Students usually appreciate this information,
especially when combined with behavior modification principles, so they can learn to change their own
study habits. There are also several good books available that deal specifically with the topic of study skills:
Brown, R. T. (1991). Studying psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Fenker, R. M. (1981). Stop studying. Start learning. Fort Worth, TX: Tanyrum Press.
McKowen, C. (1979). Get your A out of college. Los Altos, CA: William Kaufman.
Pauk, W. (1984). How to study in college. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Robinson, F. (1970). Effective study. New York: Harper & Row. (This is the original SQ3R
technique.)
Williams, Robert L., and Long, J. D. (1991). Manage your life. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Wolf, S. (1986). Techniques for success: College reading and study skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Lecture/Discussion Suggestions
1.
Classical Conditioning Application: Bedwetting. This example comes from the work of Mowrer (1960),
whose wife was working in a home for children. One of the common problems they had was bed-wetting,
often by children approaching adolescence or even beyond. Assuming that the normal bladder training had
not been accomplished, Mowrer set out to design a simple device that would awaken the child before he wet
the bed. (I am using the pronoun “he” deliberately; more than 75 percent of children with this problem are
males.) Let us look at this from the point of view of classical conditioning. The desired response is waking
up. On most mornings, how do you wake up? I prefer a gentle rub from a warm hand, and a smooth loving
voice that says, “Honey, it’s time to get up.” However, like most of us, I am awakened by an alarm clock. If
we use an alarm as the UCS, the CS must be a full bladder, but how do we make the technological
connection? If we use a catheter to measure bladder pressure, we defeat the purpose of the training. It is
110
Learning
possible to attach strain gauges to the lower abdomen, but children move around in their sleep, and the strain
gauges fall off. Mowrer hit on a very simple idea, still being used today. The child sleeps on a special pad in
which two conductive layers are separated by a thin millipore layer. When a drop of urine falls on the pad, it
closes the circuit between the two conductive layers, and the alarm sounds. Batteries power the circuit, so no
danger of shock exists. Sweat and water do not trigger the circuit, since they cannot pass through the
millipore layer.
Ah, you say, but the child has already begun urination. How will the training work? It is none other than
Pavlov himself to the rescue. In his work with dogs, Pavlov noted that early in training the CR was very slow
in coming. After a number of conditioning trials, the time between CS and CR shortened dramatically. In
fact, even during training trials, the CR would occur prior to the delivery of the UCS. Pavlov called this
phenomenon the inhibition of delay, and asserted that one characteristic of the CR is that it migrates
backward in time, occurring earlier and earlier on subsequent trials. With our young boy, at the outset of
training a few drops of urine will flow prior to the alarm. After several nights of this, the alarm will begin to
sound just prior to the flow of urine. Of course, at the sound of the alarm the child will get up, go to the
bathroom, and reset the device before getting back into bed. To be sure there is not too long a delay between
the time the bladder reaches capacity and triggers urination and the sounding of the alarm, the child must
sleep nude, at least from the waist down. These devices can now be purchased from most major stores and
from many pharmacies as well. Sometimes you need only purchase the pad; the alarms are rented by the
week.
Mowrer, O. H. (1960). Learning theory and behavior. New York: John Wiley.
2.
Classical Conditioning Application: Draft Avoidance. This example comes where I did my
undergraduate work. It was rumored that in the late 1960s a couple of U.S. men were about to graduate from
college and be eligible for the draft to go to Viet Nam. They didn’t want to go. They devised a shock
machine, and based on what they knew about the sympathetic nervous system, they reasoned that a shock
(UCS) would increase their blood pressure (UCR). They placed a blood pressure cuff on the arm then
shocked themselves. After repeated pairings, the blood pressure cuff (CS) was enough to cause the increase
in blood pressure (CR). Students can receive practice with classical conditioning by having them think about
what extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination would look like in this example.
3.
Cognition and Classical Conditioning. Students often fail to see any connection between cognitive
factors and classical conditioning. To emphasize further the mediation idea, the opinion many
psychologists currently hold, review the studies that Michael Dawson has reported.
First, Dawson has shown that, in some cases, conditioning occurs in humans only if they understand the
relationship between the UCS and the CS. Participants in this study were connected to a shock
apparatus and told that they would experience a shock sometime during the presentation of a sequence
of five stimuli. The participants’ responses were monitored based on CSR. The shocks were delivered
based on a set plan. The results were that those who failed to figure out the plan showed no
conditioning to the stimulus that preceded the shock. Dawson then told all the subjects that the shock
was predictable. At this point, most of the participants quickly figured out the sequence and began
showing signs of stress immediately upon the presentation of the CS. Thus, we see that just
experiencing the CS-UCS connection is not enough; the research participant must, in effect, know the
connection between the events. Research has also shown that this “knowledge” of the connection
between the UCS and CS does not have to be correct. As long as we believe a connection exists, we are
conditioned to the CS.
Expectancies or beliefs about the conditioning process may also mediate the effects of conditioning.
Dawson demonstrated this in a very simple experiment in which he told half the participants that being
111
Chapter Seven
conditioned was intelligent; the other half were told the opposite. Those who were told that
conditioning was a positive sign showed higher levels of conditioning than those told it was negative.
Dawson argues that this means that, when therapists are trying to condition a patient who has a phobia,
they must be explicit (about the CS-UCS relationship) and must elicit the patient’s active cooperation.
4.
Schedules of Reinforcement. Many students respond to the issue of schedules of reinforcement by thinking
only of the rather artificial and contrived conditions of the research laboratory. It helps to remind them that,
as with other laws of psychology including the law of effect, the principles that govern the effects of
schedules of reinforcement occur in the natural environment, with our behavior being the result. Some
natural examples will help.
Consider the fixed interval schedule and the sharply scalloped curve of performance it produces. There are
lots of fixed interval schedules; most of us are paid on an FI schedule, typically FI-14 days (whether we need
it, deserve it, or not). Is the pay contingent on the quality of work or is it not more realistically contingent on
our survival for a certain duration of time? As another example, the U.S. Congress enacts over half of all its
legislation within 5 days prior to adjournments (vacation). Now that is a scalloped curve.
Variable schedules are easy to compare. Consider two fishermen sitting side by side fishing. One fisherman
casts his line repeatedly, making a cast every minute or two. The other fisherman just sits there until a fish
bites. They catch the same number of fish but are not reinforced on the same schedule. The first fisherman,
who casts repeatedly, is reinforced on a variable ratio schedule, whereas the second fisherman, who waits
patiently, is reinforced on a variable interval schedule. From what we know about the effects of such
schedules, it is easy to predict that the fisherman who casts frequently will be more likely to continue fishing
in the future, because FR schedules produce a higher and more consistent rate of responding than do FI
schedules.
5.
Learned Helplessness. One of the most exciting lines of research has grown from the experimental
distinction between contingent and contiguous reinforcement. Tracing back to Hull (1943), we find the dual
emphasis of contingent consequences delivered immediately. Under these conditions, an experimenter could
not know whether contingency or contiguity were the important component. Rescorla (1967) provided
paradigms for classical conditioning in which it was possible to separate the two elements and create a
condition in which the UCS is truly unpredictable. The effect of such a condition is somewhat similar to
Pavlov’s technique for experimental neurosis (Pavlov, 1927), in that the animal stops responding. Pavlov’s
technique was more involved, requiring the conditioning of a respondent CR to one stimulus, say a circular
disc, and a CR of not responding to a somewhat different CS, for example an oval disc, and then gradually
changing the two CSs until they were indistinguishable. Rescorla’s procedure has essentially the same effect.
From the expectancy-value position, however, the two paradigms are similar.
The notion of unpredictability has generated a considerable amount of research, much of which is almost
immediately applicable to human conditions. Seligman (1975) has summarized much of that research and its
relevance in a most intriguing and highly recommended book. Briefly, this is the picture. Dogs are placed in
a shuttle box in which the two chambers are separated by a low wall. The dogs are given brief foot shock in
one side and readily learn the escape response of jumping over the barrier wall into the safe side. Seligman
also demonstrated that, if he turned on a light a few seconds prior to the shock, the dogs readily learned the
avoidance behavior of jumping the barrier wall in response to the light prior to the shock onset.
Taking some dogs at random, Seligman harnessed them so they could not escape and gave them a series
(about 12) of very brief foot shocks. When he took the harness off and provided subsequent (escapable)
shocks, the dogs did not attempt to escape but simply lay on the shock grid, whining and urinating. They had
essentially learned to be helpless. They had stopped trying to escape, stopped responding to the
112
Learning
contingencies.
113
Chapter Seven
Humans who experience one or more helpless situations, such as the death of a close friend or loved one, the
loss of a job, or other such losses, often respond with depression. This state has the following components:




They stop responding, often reducing the amount of social reinforcement they receive.
They state their belief that they are helpless to accomplish anything. They may say things such as,
“Nothing can be done about it,” or “Don’t bother me, I can’t do anything about it.”
They experience a phase of anxiety, often free-floating or related to the unpredictability of the
future.
The anxiety extinguishes, leaving them depressed.
Seligman was also interested in how the dogs might recover the capacity to respond to contingent
conditions. He tried many alternatives, including allowing the dog to watch other dogs escape and
placing other (healthy) dogs in the box with the depressed dog. The only technique that worked was
putting a leash on the helpless dog and physically dragging the dog over the barrier in concert with the
shock. To recover from 12 brief shocks took as many as 200 trials of such physical manipulation before
the dogs made initial efforts at escape behaviors. Such is the toll of learned helplessness.
Many people see the learned helplessness model of depression as very useful and identify the problem
as one of unrealistic interpretation. That is, the helpless dogs failed to see a contingent relation when
they were in it. The paradigm has an interesting twist: how do we know that the nondepressed people
see contingent relationships realistically? Indeed, Alloy and Abramson (1979) compared depressed and
nondepressed college students and reported that:
Depressed students’ judgments of contingency were surprisingly accurate . . . Nondepressed students,
on the other hand, overestimated the degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes
when noncontingent outcomes were frequent and/or desired, and underestimated the degree of
contingency when contingent outcomes were undesired (p. 441). Thus, it may appear that, to combat
depression we might actually want to provide people with the strategies these students had—to enable
them to minimize their responsibilities in undesired situations and maximize their responsibilities when
outcomes are more desired.
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1979). Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed
students. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 108.
Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of behavior. New York: D. Appleton-Century.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Rescorla, R. A. (1967). Pavlovian conditioning and its proper control procedures. Psychological
Review, 74, 71–80.
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness—On depression, development, and death. San Francisco:
W. H. Freeman.
6.
Preparedness vs. Equipotentiality. Students encountering classical conditioning for the first time may
easily assume that any neutral stimulus may serve as the CS for any response, and that the only difficulty
is the technicality of pairing the CS and the UCS. In fact, Pavlov (1927) himself believed just that. In his
original formulation, he asserted that the only criterion for selection of the CS is that it be of sufficient
magnitude to elicit the Orienting Reflex (OR), which Pavlov called the “What is it? reflex.” This
teaching, which came to be called the Doctrine of Equipotentiality, held psychologists in its sway for
over 30 years. Since 1960, a great number of studies have demonstrated that organisms are specially
prepared to make certain types of stimulus connections and not others. For example, Garcia and
Koelling (1966) demonstrated that rats are more prepared to associate taste and sickness and visual and
auditory stimuli with pain, but not the reverse. They allowed rats to drink saccharine-flavored water
114
Learning
from a tube, and each lick of the drinking tube caused a click to sound and a bright light to flash.
Subsequently, half of the rats were made ill by X-radiation, and the other half were subjected to painful
electric shocks. Following these treatments, the rats were given the opportunity to drink under two
conditions; in one condition, the water was plain but accompanied by the click and flash; in the other
condition, the water was flavored with saccharine, but no click or flash of light was presented. The
animals that were made sick by X-ray avoided the saccharine-flavored water in favor of the plain water
with the click and flash. The animals that had been shocked did just the opposite, choosing the
saccharine solution and avoiding the click and flash of light. This study, thus, demonstrates that certain
natural stimuli are predisposed to connections with certain other stimuli, perhaps categorized by
response class.
Kimble (1981) has summarized much of the other related research in the following five points:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
The learning involved in taste aversion is a form of classical conditioning.
Such conditioning can involve very long CS-UCS intervals, on the order of several hours, and
with only a single pairing.
A wide variety of tastes (CS) and an equally wide variety of techniques for producing illness
(UCS) are effective.
There are species differences in the processes of taste aversion development, focusing on the
specific sensory preferences of the organisms.
Stimulus novelty is very important; previous experience with a taste not followed by sickness
inoculates the animal against the development of a taste aversion using that same stimulus.
The notion that organisms are prepared in some innate way to make certain connections between stimuli
and responses can be extended to suggest that some responses are more sensitive to reinforcement,
whether by classical or operant paradigms. This involves the phenomenon of autoshaping, in which an
organism essentially trains itself to respond for reinforcers. For example, a pigeon will peck at a key that
illuminates just prior to the activation of the grain hopper. It is crucial to note that autoshaping is a
restricted behavior pattern, occurring only when the response to be learned is similar topologically to the
reasons involved in consuming the reinforcer.
Another type of behavior that may develop without the deliberate effort or design of the experimenter is
superstitious behavior. When Skinner (1948) first described this pattern, he attributed it to the effects of
delivering reinforcers on a schedule that made their pairing with a specific behavior adventitious.
Skinner was concerned because the food mechanism was so loud that it distressed the birds. During the
first half hour or so in the chambers, the birds flapped about in response to this noise. Skinner realized
that the response could be extinguished, and this could be done essentially in an automatic way. So he
set up some chambers, put pigeons in them, arranged for the hoppers to open at a fixed interval, and
went away for a bit. When he returned, he found the pigeons engaging in repetitious behavior patterns.
One bird was turning around to the left, constantly. Another bird was pecking at the upper corner of the
cage. Each bird was doing what it had been doing when reinforcers were delivered. Skinner argued that
this demonstrated that reinforcers work on behavior, even if they are not logically related to the
behavior. Of course, what is logical to a pigeon may not be logical to a person. What must be noted from
Skinner’s example, of course, is that the behaviors displayed by the pigeons are all typical pigeonlike
behaviors.
Staddon and Simmelhag repeated Skinner’s experiment, this time observing the behavior of the birds
more carefully. They noted that all the ritualized behavior sequences ended in a feeding response,
usually pecking. Thus, the examples are in support of both the superstitious behavior hypothesis and the
notion of instinctual drift. In either case, it is important to note that there are biological constraints on
learning.
115
Chapter Seven
116
Learning
Garcia, J., & Koelling, R. A. (1966). The relation of cue to consequence in avoidance learnings.
Psychonomic Science, 4, 123–124.
Kimble, G. A. (1981). Biological and cognitive constraints on learning. In L. T. Benjamin (Ed.),
Psychonomic Science, 4, 123–124.
Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
Skinner, B. F. (1948). “Superstition” in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 168–
172.
7.
Instinctive Drift. The concept of instinctive drift refers to the tendency, observed by experimenters, for
animals to revert to innate response patterns in lieu of learned responses. Sometimes the animals replace
a trained response with a closely matching natural one; sometimes the match is less obvious. The notion
of instinctive drift has a very long history, beginning with the observations of the Brelands:
The chicken walks over about 3 feet, pulls a rubber loop on a small box which starts a repeated auditory
stimulus pattern (a four-note tune). The chicken then steps up onto an 18-inch, slightly raised disc,
thereby closing a timer switch, and scratches vigorously, round and round, over the disc for 15 seconds,
at the rate of about two scratches per second until the automatic feeder fires in the retaining
compartment. The chicken goes into the compartment to eat, thereby automatically shutting the door.
The popular interpretation of this behavior pattern is that the chicken has turned on the “jukebox” and
“dances.”
The development of this behavioral exhibit was wholly unplanned. In the attempt to create quite another
type of demonstration that required a chicken simply to stand on a platform for 12─15 seconds, we
found that over 50% developed a very strong and pronounced scratch pattern, which tended to increase
in persistence as the time interval was lengthened. (Another 25% or so developed other
behaviors──pecking at spots, etc.) However, we were able to change our plans so as to make use of the
scratch pattern, and the result was the “dancing chicken” exhibit described above.
In this exhibit the only real contingency for reinforcement is that the chicken must depress the platform
for 15 seconds. In the course of a performing day (about 3 hours for each chicken) a chicken may turn
out over 10,000 unnecessary, virtually identical responses.
This description of an example of instinctive drift is compelling and raises important questions. One of
those questions must be whether humans also engage in innumerable responses on a regular basis that
have no actual reinforcement contingencies. Perhaps we are aware of someone whose behavior seems
unduly rigid, even compulsive. Could it be a simple example of instinctive drift, or would the pattern
have to be observable in a great number of the members of the species? The Brelands define instinctive
drift in a very narrow context:
Here we have animals, after having been conditioned to a specific learned response, gradually drifting
into behaviors that are entirely different from those that were conditioned. Moreover, it can easily be
seen that these particular behaviors to which the animals drift are clear-cut examples of instinctive
behaviors having to do with the natural food-getting behaviors of the particular species (p. 683).
Breland, K., & Breland, M. (1961). The misbehavior of organisms. American Psychologist, 16,
681─684.
117
Chapter Seven
8.
“I’m Punishing But the Behavior Isn’t Changing!” In any given situation, there are aspects of the
situation that are punishing and aspects that are reinforcing. When a parent tells a child not to touch
something, and the child continues to do so, even after having been punished, it becomes necessary to
take a closer look at the situation. What is it that the child finds so reinforcing about the forbidden
object that the punishment is a price the child is willing to pay? Is it very fun to play with? Is causing a
reaction in the parent reinforcing? If the punishment isn’t decreasing the behavior then it isn’t
punishment.
Ask students to consider their own childhoods. What punishments did they receive? Did it stop their
behavior? Why or why not?
9.
“Why Should I Bribe My Kid?” When a child is learning to eat with a spoon, we don’t expect the
child to do it perfectly the first time. Instead, we shape the child’s behavior. We tell the child “Good
job!” when they hold the spoon in their hand. They could be smearing food all over themselves with the
other hand; it doesn’t matter. The first step has been reached: holding the spoon. Next, to receive
reinforcement, the child is expected to get some food on the spoon, then somewhere near the mouth,
then in the mouth, until the child is eating well with the spoon. Each successive approximation is
reinforced. Once the behavior is learned, we can withdraw the reinforcement. Point out the students’
parents probably aren’t still reinforcing them for eating well with a spoon!
If you want the child to learn how to pick up after themselves, keep their room clean, do chores around
the house, reinforcement is needed until the desired behavior has been well-established. Moving from a
continuous reinforcement schedule, to a fixed schedule, then finally to a variable schedule may be the
best way to solidify the behavior.
Oftentimes when students hear “reinforcement” they automatically think of money, candy, or toys.
Encourage students to think of other things that may be reinforcing to children, e.g., time alone with a
parent, choosing a restaurant for dining out, time at the park, a trip to the library.
Classroom Activities
1.
Classical Conditioning with an Airhorn. There are many ways to classically condition a classroom
of students. A well-known way is to turn your students into Pavlov’s dogs by conditioning them to
salivate in response to the word “Pavlov”. Pixie Stix make a wonderful unconditioned stimulus. You
can then use your students’ experience to cover extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and
discrimination.
If you’re in an isolated classroom, you may wish to consider conditioning your students with an
airhorn. As you lecture, whenever you say the words “classical conditioning,” blow the airhorn. At the
end of class, say “classical conditioning” and note your students’ responses. Caution: You may
condition yourself, thus in subsequent classes find yourself avoiding the words “classical
conditioning”!
2.
Problem Behaviors. Divide the class into small groups. Instruct the students to think of the people
and animals in their lives. Each group is to generate a list of 5 to 10 problem behaviors. Each group is
to choose two of those problem behaviors and devise a positive reinforcement plan, perhaps use
shaping, to change the behavior. The plan should include an appropriate and defined schedule of
reinforcement.
118
Learning
Experiencing Psychology: Shaping the professor’s behavior
Shaping has proved to be a powerful tool in conditioning behaviors that have little or no chance of
occurring spontaneously. This has contributed to areas as diverse as industry, parenting, education, animal
training, athletic training, and treating mental hospital patients. This activity will provide you with
experience in shaping to condition the behavior of your introductory psychology professor.
Method
Participant
The lone participant will be the introductory psychology professor. Because students will be using shaping
to condition the professor’s behavior, the students should inform the professor that they intend to shape an
unidentified, but nonembarrassing behavior.
Material
Students will need a pen and a sheet of paper to record each of the professor’s behaviors and each time he
or she receives a positive reinforcer.
Procedure
The students should agree on a behavior to shape. Some possibilities include having the professor touch his
or her face, lecture toward one side of the room, or lecture from a particular spot in the room. Feel free to
choose another (nonembarrassing) behavior. Do not inform the professor of the specific behavior students
will be shaping. Of course, they must first obtain the professor’s permission to do this.
After they have obtained permission and have identified a behavior to shape, they must decide on the
positive reinforcer to use. Possible positive reinforcers include smiling at the professor, making eye contact
with the professor, raising one’s hand to make a comment, and appearing to be studiously taking notes.
Once they have decided on the positive reinforcer to use, the students should agree on the sequence of
behaviors to positively reinforce as successive approximations of the target behavior. Then proceed to
shape the professor’s behavior during a class lecture. The students must reinforce each successive behavior
immediately after it occurs.
The students should try to be subtle in providing positive reinforcement. If all the students suddenly smile
or make eye contact or perform some other simultaneous action, it might become too obvious to the
professor. Thus, it would be advisable to have only certain students assigned to provide the positive
reinforcer. Continue this for as many class sessions as it takes to achieve the target behavior.
Record how many reinforcements are required to establish the target behavior. Also record how long the
professor engages in the target behavior during the class session after the one in which it first occurs. On the
class session following the one in which the target behavior is established, stop the positive reinforcement.
Measure how long the professor engages in the target behavior during the next three sessions.
119
Chapter Seven
Results
Using data recorded by each of the students and finding the mean, note how many sessions and
reinforcements were needed to condition the target behavior. Also using the data recorded from each of the
students and finding the mean, note how long the professor engaged in the target behavior on the day after it
first appeared. Again using the data recorded from each of the students and finding the mean, note the
average length of time the professor engaged in the behavior on the three non-reinforced sessions.
Discussion
Discuss how successful the class was in shaping the target behavior as well as any difficulties you
encountered. Would you do anything different if you repeated this exercise? Did the professor become
aware of the target behavior? If so, do you think that it helped or hindered the shaping of the target
behavior? Suggest a related follow-up exercise students would be interested in doing.
Critical Thinking Questions
1.
How might a student develop a variety of classically conditioned responses to college classes?
2.
Do your friends ever reinforce you in ways that are not good for you? In ways that are good for you?
Explain your answers.
3.
What factors make some behaviors more difficult to extinguish than others?
4.
Discuss how classical conditioning and operant conditioning can play a role in race relations.
5.
How do marketers use classical conditioning in advertising?
6.
Some children consistently throw temper tantrums in front of one parent but not the other. Describe how
this behavior may have been conditioned.
7.
If you have a pet (or know someone who does), in what ways have you conditioned your pet’s behavior?
Has your pet conditioned your behavior?
8.
Discuss how learned helplessness can affect low-income people.
9.
If you have been conditioned to behave in certain ways, is it possible to overcome the effects of
conditioning? How might this be accomplished?
10. Culture exerts a tremendous impact on childrearing practices. Discuss attitudes about punishment and
reinforcement in your culture. Do you agree with these ideas? Why or why not?
120
Learning
Video/Media Suggestions
Albert Bandura: Part 1 (Penn State Public Broadcasting, 1988, 29 minutes) Dr. Albert Bandura reviews his
influences in theoretical and research development, and discusses cognitive and social behavior
modification, social learning, modeling, and aggression.
Albert Bandura: Part 2 (Penn State Public Broadcasting, 1988, 28 minutes) Dr. Albert Bandura recalls his
classic Bobo doll experiment, and discusses the effects of aggression and violence in the media. He also
discusses morality, and moral disengagement, self-efficacy, reactions to criticism, and plans for the future.
B. F. Skinner on behaviorism (Insight Media, 1977, 28 minutes) B. F. Skinner discusses behavior
modification, behavioral technology, and the uses of positive reinforcement in shaping human behavior.
He addresses programmed instruction, the application of behaviorism to a variety of social concerns, and
the concept of utopia.
Dr. B.F. Skinner: Part 1 (Penn State Public Broadcasting, 1966, 50 minutes) Dr. B.F. Skinner evaluates
Freudian theory and discusses his views on motivation. He also explores the subjects of operant
conditioning, schedules of reinforcement, punishment, and teaching machines.
Dr. B.F. Skinner: Part 2 (Penn State Public Broadcasting, 1966, 50 minutes) Dr. B.F. Skinner discusses his
novel, Walden Two, illustrating the problems of creating a society based on positive rather than negative
control. He also evaluates the American educational system and describes the application of operant
conditioning to society at large.
Sniffy the Virtual Rat (Insight Media, Mac/Windows CD-ROM) This CD-ROM offers users the opportunity
to explore operant and classical conditioning by training their own virtual rat to perform specific behaviors
using virtual food as reinforcement. It details a range of conditioning phenomena and produces realistic
cumulative records and behavioral measures.
Discovering Psychology 8: Learning (Annenberg/CPB Project, 1990, 20 minutes, color) Illustrates the basic
principles of classical and operant conditioning and reviews the work of Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and
Skinner.
Learning (Insight Media, 1990, 30 minutes) This video explores the processes of classical and operant
conditioning. It includes an interview with B. F. Skinner, as well as a segment filmed at a child
development center that demonstrates how the principles of operant conditioning are used to help
hyperactive children.
The Skinner revolution (Research Press, 1980, 23 minutes) This film nicely summarizes the impact of
Skinner's work, including discussions with Skinner and demonstrations of the many applications of
principles derived from his research and writing.
References
Klein, S.B. & Mowrer, R.R. (Eds.) (1989). Contemporary learning theories: Instrumental conditioning
theory and the impact of biological constraints on learning. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Moore, J.W. (Ed.) (2001). A neuroscientist’s guide to classical conditioning. [Not published at the time of
this writing; due out October 2001]
Schmajuk, N. & Holland, P.C. (Eds.)(1998). Occasion setting: Associative learning and cognition in
animals. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Smith, T.L. (1994). Behavior and its causes: Philosophical foundations of operant psychology (Studies in
Cognitive Systems, Vol 16). Boston: Kluwer Academic.
Woodruff-Pak, D.S. & Steinmetz, J.E. (Eds.)(2000). Eyeblink classical conditioning. Boston: Kluwer
Academic.
121
Chapter Seven
Sources of Biographical Information
Asratyan, E. A. (1953). I. P. Pavlov: His life and work. Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House.
Babkin, B. P. (1949). Pavlov: A biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Cuny, H. (1965). Ivan Pavlov: The man and his theories. New York: Eriksson.
Evans, R. I. (1989). Albert Bandura: The man and his ideas—A dialogue. New York: Praeger.
Frolov, Y. P. (1938). Pavlov and his school: The theory of conditioned reflexes. London: Kegan Paul,
Trench, Trubner & Co.
Gray, J. A. (1981). Ivan Pavlov. New York: Penguin Books.
Joncich, G. (1968). The sane positivist: A biography of Edward L. Thorndike. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan
University Press.
Sechenov, I. M. (1935/1973). I. M. Sechenov: Biographical sketch and essays. Salem, NH: Ayer.
Sherwood, E., & Sherwood, M. (1970). Ivan Pavlov. Geneva: Heron.
Todes, D.P. (2000). Ivan Pavlov: Exploring the animal machine. New York: Oxford University Press.
[Tolman] In memoriam, Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959). Berkeley: University of California Press.
122