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Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Concepts and Methods
“the Big picture”
organization
cell
organelle
organism
organ system
family
population
community, ecosystem, biosphere
producers, consumers, decomposers
life and death
unity in life
diversity of life
interdependency
homeostasis
growth
energy
metabolism
DNA, RNA, reproduction, heredity
Mutation/evolution
adaptation
Diversity
Classification/taxonomy
Animals
Plants
Fungi
Monerans: two kinds
protists
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus species
Theory
Scientific Method
Hypothesis
Conclusion
control group
data
bias, error, accuracy and precision
Practical: Every moment of your life you are constantly involved with life – your own, those of others, those of
symbionts and of sources of food and materials. Death of many organisms is required to support your life.
Homework:
Do the self quiz on your own and be prepared to answer the Review Questions: page 17.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Chemical Foundations
Unity of life concept, revisited
Atoms
subatomic particles:
proton
electron
neutron
atomic number
atomic mass
isotopes
radioactivity (decay)
electron orbitals/shells
molecules
mixtures
compounds
bonding:
covalent
ionic - disassociation
hydrogen
hydrophilic/ hydrophobic substances
reactivity
solvent, solute, solution, solubility
pH
acid/base
buffer
salt
mineral
Practical Application: A basic understanding of chemistry is fundamental in many of your daily activities. Organic chemistry is
based on a small set of elements and is the basis of life, nutrients and medicines. Your understanding of hormones and toxic
substances, especially carcinogens and mutagens is enhanced by a basic appreciation of life chemistry
Homework: Get ahead in your study of Biology by reading the next assigned chapter. Continue to do the self quizzes on your
own. Also study the review questions and be prepared to answer them.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Carbon Compounds in Cells
Organic compounds
Bonding behavior
Tetrahedron
Synthesis (anabolism and catabolism)
Functional groups:
Hydroxyl
Aldehyde
Ketone
Carboxyl
Amino
phosphate
Chains and rings
Classes of reactions
Functional group transfer
Electron transfer
Rearrangement
Condensation/dehydration
Cleavage/hydrolysis
Monomers and Polymers
Saturation, unsaturation and double bonds
carbohydrate
mono, di, oligo and polysaccharides
starch
cellulose
glycogen
lipid, hydrocarbons, nonpolar
fatty acids
triglycerides
phospholipids
sterols
protein, polypeptides
amino acids
disulfide bridge
levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
glycoprotein
denaturation
nucleic acid
DNA, RNA
Nucleotides
Riboses
Phosphate
4 Bases (G, C, A, T)
Double/single helix
ATP
Homework: Get ahead in your study of Biology by reading the next assigned chapter. Continue to do the self quizzes on your
own. Also study the review questions and be prepared to answer them.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Cell Structure and Function
Cell theory
Every organism is composed of cells
The cell is the smallest life unit
All life comes from living cells
Structural organization/compartmentalization
Plasma (cell) membrane
Cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
Nucleoid region/nucleus: prokaryotes/eukaryotes
Cell membrane
Lipid bilayer, phospholipids
Micelles
Surface-to-volume ratio
Microscopy
Light, TEM, SEM
Micrograph
Eukaryotic Organelles
Nucleus, envelope (pores), nucleolus, chromosomes
chloroplast
mitochondria
cytomembrane system:
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), smooth and rough (ribosomes)
golgi body
vesicles, lysosome
central vacuole
centrioles, basal bodies
Cytoskeleton components
Microtubules
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Motility
Pseudopods
Flagella and cilia (9+2 array), MTOC
Streaming
Specialization
Cell wall
Matrixes
Plasmodesmata
Prokaryotic structures
Membrane
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Cell wall
Capsule
Pili
Bacterial flagella
Practical Application: To know the parts of cells and their functions is to begin to see how tissues provide functions in
organs. Also the way a disease organism affects the body is largely understood at this level.
Homework: Get ahead in your study of Biology by reading the next assigned chapter. Continue to do the self quizzes on your
own. Also study the review questions and be prepared to answer them.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Cell Membranes
Phospholipid
Cholesterol
fluid mosaic
lipid bilayer
diffusion
solute, solvent, solution
gradient concept
concentration
electric
pressure
membrane proteins (including glycoproteins)
transport
open and gated channel proteins (passive transport, facilitated diffusion)
active transport (pumps, ATP)
reception
recognition
adhesion
endocytosis
receptor mediated,
bulk phase,
phagocytosis
exocytosis, pinocytosis (contractile vacuoles)
vesicles and membrane cycling, golgi apparatus, lysosomes
osmosis
passive diffusion of water
concentration of solute
iso, hypo, and hypertonic
plasmolysis
Practical Application: Reverse osmosis is a practical way to produce pure water from salty or contaminated water.
Understandings of diffusion, osmosis and active transport explain a variety of biological phenomena including nervous
impulse conduction, wilting and sap flow in plants, venom concentration in snakes and spiders and electrical discharge in
eels.
Homework: Start getting ready for the first exam. Study terminology and look for likely essay questions in your readings.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Metabolism
Metabolism
Anabolism/Catabolism
Energy
Potential, Kinetic, Thermal (heat)
Molecular potential (chemical)
Calories
Chemical Reactions
Laws of thermodynamics
1. Total energy remains constant
2. Entropy increases
(3. life exists)
Law of the conservation of mass
reactants -> products
concentrations
directional
equilibrium concept (bi-directional)
exergonic/endergonic reactions
Energy transfer
ATP, ADP, phosphorylation
Coupled reactions
Metabolic pathways
Degradative/Biosynthesis
Substrates/intermediates/end products
Energy carriers
Enzymes and Cofactors
Transport proteins
Enzymes
Catalytic
Reused
Bidirectional
Selective
Mechanism:
Activation energy concept
Active sites
Induced fit concept
Transition state
Environmental factors:
Temperature
pH
feedback inhibition
coenzymes
Electron transfer and transport systems
Oxidation-reduction reaction
Electron donor, Electron acceptor, Pathways of enzymes/proteins
Practical: This is life whether we want to acknowledge it or not. These are the mechanisms God put in us to make us and
other life forms function in the material world. The proteins of life are the cogs, machines and building blocks.
ATP is the fuel. Much of the future of Biology as a field of study will focus on proteins.
Homework: Start getting ready for the first exam. Study terminology and look for likely essay questions in your readings.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Energy Acquisition
Photosynthesis/Aerobic respiration
Photoautotroph/heterotroph
Light
Electromagnetic radiation
Spectrum
Visible light
Wavelength
Prism
Pigments
Absorption spectrum
Chlorophyll a and b
Fluorescence
Accessory pigments: caratenoids, antho and phycobilins
Photosystems: I and II
Light harvest
Reaction centers: electron transport systems, ATP formation (noncyclic)
Light dependent reactions
Chemiosmotic theory of ATP formation
Excited electrons
Photolysis of water (H+ and Oxygen gas)
ATP or NADPH formation
Thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts
Light-independent reactions (dark)
Carbon fixation
C-3, C-4 and CAM
Calvin-Benson cycle
RuBP, PGA, PGAL, glucose
ATP and NADPH requirement
Starch
Cellulose
Practical application: Think about the environment when you contemplate the concepts
explained in this chapter. Think about the effects that photosynthesis has on the
chloroplast, he leaf cells, the leaf vessels and on the air surrounding the leaves. There
are a number of connecting surfaces involved that give an interface between the inner
cellular photochemistry and the outside environment. We, as air-breathers, also interface
with this same air.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Energy-Releasing Pathways
ATP formation from compounds made by producer organisms
Aerobic Respiration
Glycolysis (in cytoplasm)
Glucose
Phosphorylation
Pyruvate
ATP input/output, (net)
Can be part of anaerobic respiration: see below
Krebs Cycle (in mitochondria)
CO2 produced
ATP formed
Coenzyme A, acetyl-CoA
Citrate, isocitrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate,
oxaloacetate
NADH, FADH2, ATP
Electron Transport System (between compartments of the mitochondria)
H+ formed as NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons to the system
O2 accepts electrons, makes H2O with acid
ATP formed as H+ reenters the inner compartment
Anaerobic respiration= fermentation
Glycolysis
Same pathway
Will stop if pyruvate builds up
Fermentation
Pyruvate converted to lactate to accept electrons
Ethanol formation
by way of acetaldehyde
CO2 released
Alternative pathways
Food digestion
Intracellular conversions
Fats
Glycerol becomes PGAL
Fatty acids become PGAL
Carbohydrates
Glycogen
Proteins
Aminoacids
carbon backbones for pyruvate and acetyl-CoA
amino (ammonia) dumped as Urea
Practical applications: The understanding of these metabolic processes is the basis of many specialty areas in animal and human
science, including nutrition, digestion, biosynthesis, physiology, muscular energetics, thermoregulation and the production and
excretion of nitrogenous wastes (kidney function). In industry these processes are so well understood that many important
microorganisms are practical to grow to process for extracting including a wide variety of organic compounds and food additives.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Mitosis
Cellular reproduction
Growth
Division/fission
Multiplication
Mother cells -> daughter cells
Inheritance, duplication, distribution, mechanisms
Nuclear phenomena
Non-nuclear considerations
Chromosomes
Chromatid:
Sister chromatids:
Centromere
Ploidy
Diploid: 2n
Haploid: 1n
Other ploidy: tetraploid
Mitosis:
Somatic cells
2n -> 2 x 2n -> 2n + 2n
Meiosis: (reduction of diploid to haploid)
germ cells
2n -> 2 x 2n -> 2 x 1n + 2 x 1n -> 1n + 1n + 1n + 1n
Cell cycle
G1 = first growth period
S = DNA synthesis period
G2 = second growth period
M = mitosis
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytoplasmic division/Cytokinesis/cleavage or cell plate formation
Components
Condensed chromosomes
Chromatin
Histones
Nucleosomes
Kinetochore
Spindles
10k microtubules
motor proteins
cell plate (plants)
vesicle convergence
Practical Applications: Knowledge of mitosis and the cell cycle is the basis of organismal growth, vegetative (asexual)
reproduction, tissue healing, regeneration of lost body parts and cancer.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Meiosis
Sexual reproduction
Gametes
sex cells
sperms
eggs (ova)
spores
Gametogenesis
Germ cells
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
Fertilization, zygote formation, conception
Chromosomes, sister, chromatids, homologues
Ploidy:
diploid
haploid
the “meaning” of the diploid numbers of organisms
genes and alleles
karyotype, genotype and phenotype
Stages of meiosis
Meiosis I
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Cytokinesis
Meiosis II
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
Cytokinesis
Critical alignments
Reduction
Crossing over, recombination and chiasmata
Alternation of generations
Practical Applications: Knowledge of meiosis is the basis of understanding sexual reproduction. Mendel’s laws are best
understood in view of what occurs in meiosis. Odd forms of meiosis lead to diseases that are not uncommon in our species.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Observable Patterns of Inheritance
Genetics
Genes, loci, homologous chromosomes, alleles, pairs
Inheritance
“law” of blending
Mendelian genetics
True (pure) breeding/hybrids
Homozygotes/heterozygotes
Dominant/recessive traits
Genotype/phenotype
P, F1, F2
Crosses: mono and dihybrid, test crosses
Punnett squares and probability
Laws
Segregation
Independent assortment
Modern understandings
Chromosomal linkages
Dominance varitions
Incomplete
Codominance
Pleiotropy
Interactions: epistasis
Polygenetics
Continuous variation
Environmental effects
Extranuclear inheritance
Practical Applications: Knowledge of basic genetics explains most of what happens in the expression of the genotype into a
phenotype. Don’t forget “Nature vs. Nurture”.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Chromosomes and Human Genes
Chromosomal basis of inheritance
Gene, chromosome, homologues, recombination, meiosis, gametogenesis
Autosomes and sex chromosomes
Karyotypes analysis
Sex determination in humans
X and Y chromosomes
Development
Linkage groups
X and Y linked genes, reciprocal test crosses
Recombination
Tightness of linkage
Length of chromosome
Mapping
Map units = frequency of recombination
Physical units
Human genetic analysis
Pedigrees
Symbols
Patterns
Genetic disorders
Autosomal
Recessive
Dominant
x-linked
dominant
recessive
nondisjunction
euploidy, aneuploidy and polyploidy
autosomal: Down
sex chromsome syndromes: Turner, Klinefelter, XXY, XYY
chromosome structure abnormalities
deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation
age of onset of effects of disorder
treatments, counseling, screening, prenatal diagnosis
Preimplantation diagnosis
Practical Applications: To be forewarned of an impending birth of a genetically different child is to begin to prepare the
whole family for the special accommodations that will be needed. Abortion is not an option.
Homework: do the odd problems and check your work.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
DNA Structure and Function
“This molecular constancy and variation among species is the foundation for the unity and diversity of life.”
History
1868 – Miescher: puss and semen studies led to isolation of nucleic “acids”
1928 – Griffith: mouse studies of “dead” disease traits inheritance
1949 – Chargraff: [Adenine] = [Thymine] and [Guanine] = [Cytosine]
1951 – Pauling: deduced 3D structure of protein
1951 – Franklin: x-ray diffraction images of DNA (compared to known
chemicals) implied helical structure
1953 – Watson and Crick: proposed molecular structure of DNA
1950’s – Delbruck, et al, studies of bacteriophage DNA cores
DNA
Nucleotides: one base to one phosphate to one deoxyribose
Helical structure
Double/ two-stranded
3.4 nm per full twist
opposing directions – bidirectional
base pairing – hydrogen bonds
base sequence
a “sense” strand
the order of G, C, A, T
self replication
semiconservative: one of the old strand resides in the new pair of strands
enzymes: DNA polymerase, ligase, unwinding enzymes
replication forks: origins at binding sites, bidirectional,
triphosphorylated nucleotides create new strand
continuously
discontinuously: Okazaki fragments
Chromosomal proteins: scaffolding between genes?
DNA repair
Excision repair
UV light
Cancer and mole plotting
Practical application: The understanding of DNA replication is at the heart of the cellular reproduction of life. The success of our
built-in DNA repair mechanisms ensures a near perfect continuity of life. It also explains how some damaged cells survive to give us
cancers and other mutated tissues.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
From DNA to Proteins
Garrod’s hypothesis:
inherited trait
abnormally high levels of urinary (metabolic) substances related to a key enzyme in a metabolic pathway
One gene – one polypeptide: Transcription and translation required
RNA
Three kinds
mRNA = Messenger = gene transcript – made as needed
tRNA = Transfer = has RNA “anticodon” and carries AA’s – made abundantly for all translations
rRNA = Ribosomal = special transcript to make new ribosomes – takes one to make one
Transcription
RNA assembly
DNA unwinding
Role of uracil: A – U not A - T
Promoter
RNA polymerase
DNA rewinding
Processing (modification of transcript)
Introns and exons
Excision
Poly-A tail
Translation
Migration of mRNA through nuclear pores into ctoplasm
Codons – the genetic code
Base sequence triplets
64 translate to 20 AA’s
Ribosomes
Two kinds
Assemble in ER
Sites of mRNA translation and polypeptide assembly
tRNA
Possess anticodon
Enzymatically attached to appropriate AA
Transfer the AA to ribosome and enter in according top the mRNA sequence
Stages
Initiation
mRNA loaded into ribosomal unit – AUG = START
initiation complex formed
appropriate tRNA locked in
Elongation
Polypeptide chain forms and grows
Sequence of AA’s determined by codons on mRNA
Forming polypeptide begins to take on its 3D form
mRNA may enter another ribosome to start the translation process again before
completing the first translation – chains of ribosomal events
Termination
STOP codon halts elongation
Release factors
Final protein “shipped out”
Gene mutations
Simple mutation
Base-pair substitution
Insertion
Deletion
Complex
Transposable elements
Causes: spontaneous, mutagenic chemicals and ionizing radiation
Reverse translation??
Practical application: This is much of what complex life at the whole organism level amounts to: genes in active cells decoding into
mRNA’s to become proteins and expressed traits. Development is related to the polarity, the environment and the intercellular
communication networks that form in the embryo to control/regulate these processes..
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Controls Over Genes
Genetic expression – cells exert control over selves and each other
the phenotype
cell type and function
cell environment – chemicals, signals and outside factors
development
adaptation
programmed cell death
control systems concept
regulatory proteins – interactions
operon concept: promoter, repressor binding site, linked genes
prokaryotic controls: simple, on-off, rapid response to environmental changes
negative control
repressor compound blocks promoter (target molecule)
inhibition of transcription
presence of a signal chemical removes repressor
positive control
promotion of transcription
activator protein
eukaryotic controls: much more intricate in complex organisms
cell differentiation
embryonic origins
specialization
cell activity: selective expression
transcription controls
gene amplification
DNA rearrangements
Chemical modifications
post-transcription controls
transcript processing: alternative splicing
translation controls: degradation and inactivation
protein processing: activation, inhibition, stability
short and long term aspects of expression
Examples
Transcription: lampbrush chromosomes observed in amphibians
X chromosome inactivation
Barr bodies and skin mosaic
Calico cats
Signaling mechanisms
Hormones
Stimulation or inhibition of target cells
Enhancers – binding sites
Hormonal control of gene expression is like a full symphony orchestra
Sunlight signals
Phytochrome in plants
Cancer revisited
Oncogenes
Loss of gene control
Growth factors
Tumors: benign vs. malignant
Metastasis
Traits of cancer cells
Changes in membrane and cytoplasm
Abnormal rate of cell division
Weakened adhesion
lethality
Practical applications: This is what genes are all about. Understanding these gene expression control mechanisms is the first step in
understanding the mystery of life. These are also the “tip of the iceberg” in the whole story. We do not yet know all of the intricacies
of the interactions involved.
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering
Germplasm
Technology, engineering and therapy
Sports and hybridization
DNA
Restriction enzymes
RFLP’s (restriction fragment length polymorphisms)
Modification enzymes
DNA amplification
Cloning vector - plasmids
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) - billions quickly
cDNA and reverse transcription based on mRNA
DNA fingerprinting
Tandem repeats
Gel electrophoresesis
DNA sequencing
Gel electrophoresesis
DNA libraries
Probes
Screening
Application
Recombination –a new definition
Plant tissue culture (an aside)
DNA ligase
Recombinant plasmids
Genetic alteration (engineering)
Beneficial genes
Methods of gene transfer
Plasmids
Viruses
Electroporation
Bacteria
Plants
Animals
Human genome project
35,000 have been studied so far
0.1% of human genome varies = 3,200,000 bp
400 are related to genetic disordered
Gene therapies in humans
Human enhancement
Safety issues
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Emergence of Evolutionary Thought
“In the beginning…”
“Any population can evolve when individuals differ in one or more inheritable traits
that are responsible for differences in the ability to survive and reproduce.”
Biological Science History lesson – a quest for the “meaning of life” and the “secret of life”
Ancient Greece
Hippocrates -Natural Cause theory
Aristotle – Continuum of organization, taxonomy of kinds
Early Christians
Genesis, the inspired word of God
Creation of species
The Garden
The Fall
European exploration of the world
Biogeography data first compiled
Overwhelming quantities of information
Many kinds
Wide distribution
Similar traits
patterns
Center of creation theories (where was the garden?)
Comparative morphology, anatomy and physiology
Patterns of similarity
Basic body plan theory
Homologous organs
Snakes have leg bones!
Geology - fossils
Sequential prehistoric data
Multiple sites of origin theories
Newer species descending from older theories (evolution)
Global awareness – 1900’s
Rock-solid Christian Faith:
God is the designer and distributor of Earth species
Emergence of modern Christian explanations of God’s creation
Atheistic explanations and challenges – Is God dead?
Theories emerging
Cuvier – mass extinction and catastrophism theory
Lamarck – environmental factors and the “acquired characteristics” theory
Lyell - Theory of uniformity –
Wegener – continental drift
Darwin and Wallace – natural selection theory
Traits
Survival adaptations
What does “Hindsight is 20-20” mean in this context?
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
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Chapter Notes
Microevolution
Population concept
of individuals with traits
morphological
physiological
behavioral
Gene pool of alleles (remember how genes are expressed and controlled)
Polymorphism
Continuous variation (small, incremental differences in genotypic expression)
Inheritance: 10600 combinations possible
Two parents (each 223 chromosomal combinations)
Independent assortment
Crossing over
Mutation (gene deactivation)
Chromosomal abnormalities
Allelic frequencies
Hardy-Weinberg rule
Genetic equilibrium (an idealized case: a kind of theory)
No mutation
Large population
Gene pool isolation (no immigration)
Gene not repro or survival critical
Random mating
Changes caused by circumstances
Microevolution: small scale changes in the gene pool
Gene flow
Natural selection (viv a vis artificial selection)
Genetic drift
Mutation revisited
Rate:
10-5 per gene locus per gamete per generation
one gamete per 100,000 is mutated
Lethal
Neutral
Beneficial ????
Natural selection
Reproductive capacity
Limited resources/competition
Gene pool concept
Variation in phenotypes
Fitness: according to current environment
Natural selection results
Kinds
Directional: resistances
Stabilizing: fixing traits
Disruptive: splitting the gene pool
Balancing: sexual dimorphism
Drift
Bottle necks
Founder effect
Speciation
Practical application: Was there speciation? Is it occurring now? Where?
Faulkner University
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Chapter Notes
Speciation
“Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.”
Species (kind)
Morphological definition:
based on appearance
life stages questions
effects of environment
can morphologically identical organisms be different species?
Biological definition: applies to sexually reproducing organisms
Based on reproduction
Same as long as form, physiology, behavior permit interbreeding
Fertile offspring
Origins? That is the question?
Genetic change and isolation (speciation)
Not purposeful, a byproduct of genetic change
Gene pools’ gene flows and divergence
Gradual and variable in pattern
Mechanisms of reproductive isolation and genetic compatibility
Prezygotic
Temporal
Behavioral
Mechanical
Ecological
Gametic mortality and biochemical changes
Postzygotic
Early death of embryo
Implantation failure (in mammals)
Offspring inviability
Offspring sterility
Role of geography (allopatric speciation)
Barriers
Time factors
Drift
Founder effect and bottlenecks
Other kinds of speciation
Sympatric
Polyploidy
Parapatric (sketchy evidence)
Two main patterns
Cladogenesis: branching (two from one)
Anagenesis: new from old
Diagrams: Trees
Gradual
Punctuated
Adaptive radiation concept
Extinctions
Faulkner University
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Chapter Notes
The Puzzle
Don’t forget what it says in Genesis
Microevolution vs. Macroevolution
Macro patterns: long term studies of lineages
Genetic persistence: basic unifying traits of life
Genetic divergence: speciation
Genetic disconnect: extinction
Fossils: 250,000 species?
Fossilization
Imprints
Stratification: Law of Superposition
Concept of a “fossil record”
Gaps and completeness
Readability?
Time
Biblical
Geologic Time scale (mya)
Eras, periods, epochs
Plate tectonics
Continental Drift: 1908 – F. Taylor
Pangea – Alfred Wegener
Seafloor spreading
Magnetic field alignment
Comparative Biology
Embryology
Theory:“The early embryos of vertebrates strongly resemble one another BECAUSE
they have inherited the same ancient plan for development”
Morphology
Homologous structures in widely divergent species
Analogous (similar) structures in (seemingly) unrelated species – convergence
Biochemistry
Genetics
Close genetic similarities between species with pronounced morphological differences
Molecular clock concept
Proteins
AA sequences
Taxonomy and Systematic Biology
Binomial naming system: Genus and species
Kpcofgs
Sub and super groupings added
Developed from lower to higher
Phylogeny now is a directing force
Cladistic taxonomy
Traits quantified
Cladograms
How many kingdoms
Whittaker – 1969 – five
Archaebacteria – sixth kingdom
Faulkner University
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Chapter Notes
Theories of the Origin of Life
Why connect this to our current studies?
“Although the story is not yet complete…”
“There are major gaps in the story of life’s origins.”
Questions (always remember Genesis: In the beginning…)
What was Earth like when life first appeared?
Could it have originated spontaneously? Theories?
Must it have come from off world? Theories?
Can we devise experiments and computer models to test the plausibility and support or reject these?
Tools
Curiosity, logic and “lateral” thinking (imagnation)
Lenses: Telescope, Microscope
Sciences: Biology, Chemistry, Physics
Faster, more capable computers
Evidences
Time
Earth
Materials: atmospheric gasses, crust, mantle, oceans, salts and other dissolved minerals
Astrophysics
Other planets atmospheres : was the first Earth atmosphere oxygen free?
Planetary origin theories
Miller’s experiments
Fox’s studies
Origin of life processes
Metabolic agents, catalysts?
Self replication: RNA first? DNA? Connection to protein synthesis?
Membranes
Containers?
Osmosis?
Electrical potentials
Active transport?
Micelles
Proto-cell concept
Stromatolites – mat fossils
A Tree of lineages
Anaerobic origins of three life types (Archaen Eon)
Eubacteria
Archaebacteria – eventually three kinds emerge
Megacells
Photosynthesis originated in eubacteria
Atmospheric oxygen increases (Proterozoic Eon starts)
Endosymbiont concept
Engulfed bacteria as organelles
Megacells host certain kinds of eubacteria – first eukaryotes – animals emerge
Some of same kinds of cells host photosynthetic eubacteria – plants emerge
Atmosphere becomes more oxygenated (20%)
Land organisms emerge from the sea
Major events theoretically displayed in the fossil record
Continental migration
Mass extinctions
Subsequent radiations
Practical application: Does the high diversity and distinct kinds distributed over the continents reflect any natural phenomena at play
or is it all according to a detailed original plan of God’s design?
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Ch 49: The Biosphere
Ecology – levels of study:
Earth scale:
Biosphere level – interactions with lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere
Climate:
Temperature zones:
Latitude
Altitude
Precipitation zones: air and water circulation patterns
Ocean currents
Prevailing winds
Topography: rain shadow example
Biomes
6 terrestrial biogeographic realms
Predictable arrangement of biomes
Soils
Specific biomes
Desert
Shrublands, woodlands and grasslands
Tropical forests
Coniferous (boreal) forests
Tundra: arctic and alpine
Hydrosphere level
Freshwater provinces
Lakes
Zonation: littoral, limnetic, profundal
Overturn and the thermocline
Tropic conditions
Streams
Riffles, pools and runs
Ocean provinces
Plankton and marine “snow”
Hydrothermal vents
LME’s – large marine ecosystems (ecoregions, ecozones)
Benthic vs. pelagic
Coastal: interface of land and sea
Coral reefs
Mangrove
Estuaries
Intertidal zone: rocky vs. sandy
Upwellings
El Nino
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Science Department
Chapter Notes
Ecosystems
Structure and function are similar in all ecosystems
Trophic levels: “Who’s who” = who eats whom
Plants rule (primary producers)
Herbivores - primary consumers
Carnivores – secondary consumers
Detritivores and decomposers
Other vores
Omnivores
Insectivores
Granivores
Frutivores
Energy flows (one way) through the ecosystems:
Light
Carbon compounds
Heat
Light again
Food chains and webs
Ecological pyramids
Gross and net primary productivity –
kcal/sq m/yr
Harnessing solar energy
Transfers and “losses”
Biogeochemical (Nutrient) cycles
Cycling not flowing
Hydrologic
Carbon
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Modeling
Greenhouse effect and global warming
Faulkner University
Principles of Biology (BIO 1401)
Ecosystems (continued)
Ecology at the Community level
Niche concept:
role in the “play of life”
specific means of acquiring food
Habitat, territories and ranges
Food chains
Food webs
Symbiotic relationships
Predation
One way benefits
predator/prey
Parasitism
One way benefits
Host/parasite
External and internal
Parasites of parasites
Commensalisms
One way benefits
Internal and external
Mutualisms
Two-way benefits
External and internal
Families
Human parallels
Carve out “your own niche”
Interpersonal relationships
Career choices – societal roles
Science Department
Chapter Notes