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Chapter 9 Learning
Section 1 – Classical Conditioning
• Describe the principles of classical
conditioning
• Outline the techniques of classical
conditioning.
Learning:
• Can be defined as a relatively permanent
change in behavior that results from
experience
• Three basic types of learning;
– classical conditioning
– operant condition
– modeling
Classical Conditioning
• Controlling an animal or person’s responses
in a way so that an old response becomes
attached to new stimulus
Classical Conditioning
• Neutral Stimulus:
– one that has nothing to do with the response
prior to conditioning
• Un-conditioned Stimulus (UCS)
– an event that leads to a certain predictable
response without previous training (ex. Food
normally causes salivation)
Cont.
• Un-conditioned response (UCR)
– a reaction that occurs naturally and
automatically when the UCS is presented
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
– A stimuli you are taught to respond to
• Conditioned response (CR)
– a response that is learned
Pavlov’s Experiment
Before Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
No Response
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Pavlov’s Experiment
During Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus + Unconditioned Stimulus --- Unconditioned Response
Pavlov’s Experiment
After Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus ( CS)
=
Conditioned Response (CR)
General Principles of Classical
Conditioning
• Acquisition:
– Generally occurs gradually
– With each pairing of the CS and the UCS, the CR is strengthened.
– The timing of the CS and the UCS also affects learning
• Generalization
– Occurs when an animal responds to a second stimulus similar to
the original CS without prior training to the second stimulus.
• Discrimination
– The ability to respond differently to different stimuli.
• Extinction
– A classically conditioned response can be distinguish (ended)
Classical Conditioning and Human
Behavior
• John B. Watson and Rosalie Raynor (1920)
experimented with Little Albert (page 249
of textbook)
• O. Hobart and Mollie Mower (1938)
developed a practical solution to the
problem of bed-wetting using classical
conditioning.
Classical Conditioning
• Did you know?
– Have you ever noticed how
movie directors use music
in their movies? Did you
ever hear a song and then
think about either the movie
it was from or the person
you were with when you
saw the movie? If so, you
experienced classical
conditioning. The music has
become a signal that
triggers memories and
emotions.
Section 2- Operant Conditioning
• Outline the principles of operant
conditioning
• Describe the applications of operant
conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
• Learning from the consequences of
behavior
– In operant conditioning, the subject must
engage in a behavior in order for the
programmed outcome to occur
Operant Conditioning
• B. F. Skinner is most closely associated
with operant conditioning
• believes that most behaviors are influenced
by one’s history of rewards and
punishments
– Reinforcement: a stimulus or event that affects
the likelihood that an immediately preceding
behavior will be repeated.
Reinforcement
• A stimulus or event that increases the
likelihood that behavior will be repeated
– Examples of reinforcers that people usually
respond to are social approval, money and extra
privileges.
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
• A primary reinforcer is one that satisfies a
biological need such as hunger, thirst or
sleep.
• A secondary reinforcer is one that has been
paired with a primary reinforcer and
through classical conditioning has acquired
value and reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
• One important factor in operant conditioning is the timing and
frequency of reinforcement
– Continuous Schedule: reinforced every time
– Partial Schedule: reinforcement occurs intermittently
• Within partial schedule there are four basic schedules where people respond
differently to each
• Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement depends on a specified
quantity of responses (ex: every 4th response)
• variable-ration schedule: the number of responses needed for
a reinforcement changes from one time to the next (ex: slot
machine)
• fixed-interval schedule: the time interval is always the same:
(second, minutes, days)
• variable-interval schedule: the time at which the
reinforcement becomes available changes throughout the
conditioning procedure
Shaping and Chaining
• Shaping is a process in which reinforcement
is used to sculpt new responses out of old
ones.
• In order to learn a new skill, a person must
be able to put together responses.
• Responses that follow one another in a
sequence are called response chains.
Aversive Control
• Reinforcement refers to anything that
increases the frequency of an immediately
preceding behavior.
– Aversive, or unpleasant stimuli, influence our
everyday behavior
– Aversive control refers to this type of
conditioning or learning.
Aversive Control
• Negative Reinforcement
– In negative reinforcement, a negative or unpleasant
stimulus is removed.
– This removal increases the frequency of behavior
– It negates, (takes away) and aversive stimuli
– Two types of negative reinforcement is escape
conditioning and avoidance conditioning.
• Escape conditioning – a person’s behavior causes an
unpleasant event to stop.
• Avoidance conditioning – the person’s behavior has the effect
of preventing an unpleasant situation from happening.
Factors that Affect Learning
• Feedback: finding out the results of an action or
performance
– w/o feedback, you may repeat the same mistakes
• Transfer: skills you already have that can be used
for another skill
– positive transfer: when a previously learned response
helps you learn to master a new task
– negative transfer: when a previously learned task
hinders learning (ex: driving in England)
Factors that affect learning (cont)
• Practice: the repetition of a task
– helps to bind responses together
– makes for smooth and fluent movement from
response to response
– psychologists have been interested in
determining how to use time most efficiently
and have found that it is usually better to
practice over a period of time instead of all at
once
– imagining oneself performing the skill is called
“mental practice”
Operant Conditioning
Section 3 – Social Learning
Objectives:
Cite the principles involved in cognitive learning
and modeling.
Identify the principles of learning used in behavior
modification.
Cognitive Learning
Learning to Learn
• Harry Harlow showed that animals can
learn to learn- they can learn to use
strategies for solving similar problems
• page 38 read
• Martin Seligman: Learned Helplessness
• Pg 39 read
Modeling
• Learning by imitation
– Three different types of effects
• the behaviors of others simply increases the chances
that we will do the same
• observational learning, or simply imitation; observer
watches someone perform a behavior and is later
able to reproduce it closely
• dis-inhibition: when an observer watches someone
else engage in threatening activity without being
punished, the observer may find it easier to engage
in that behavior
Modeling
Behavior Modification
Behavior Modification