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An Orientation to Life Span
Development
Chapter 1
Robert S. Feldman
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
1, 2, 3…Go!
Module 1.1:
Module 1.2:
Module 1.3:
Module 1.1
Determining the nature-and
nurture-of life span
development
What is Lifespan Development?
LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT examines
patterns of growth change and stability
in behavior throughout the lifespan.
Assumptions about
Developmental Study
Scientific, developmental approach that focuses on
contiuous human development
Every period of life contains potential for growth
and decline in abilities
Process of development persists throughout
of people’s lives
Neither heredity nor environment alone can
account for the full range of human development
Scoping it out: Characteristics of
life span development
TOPICAL AREAS
• Physical development (Discontinuous)
• Cognitive development (growth and
change in intellect influence behavior)
• Personality development
• Social development
(See Table 1-1)
Table 1-1
Age Ranges and Individual
Differences
Age Ranges
• Broad
• Social constructions (Wut we agree makes
s/o an adult)
Individual Differences
• Timing of events related to biology and
context (growth spurts happen at diff
times)
Cultural Factors and
Developmental Diversity
Broad factors
Orientation toward individualism or collectivism
Finer differences
Ethnicity (Culture and country of origin)
Race (Physical characteristics)
Socioeconomic status (income and job title)
Gender
Do you agree?
Similarities and differences among
various ethnic, cultural, and racial
groups distinguish universal and
culturally determine principles of
development.
Huh?
If visitors from another country
came to class and asked you to
describe your cohort, what would
you tell them?
Influences on Development
History graded INFLUENCES
Biological and environmental INFLUENCES
Social Cultural graded INFLUENCES
Non normative LIFE EVENT
effects only u that shouldn’t happen
Key Issues
_________________________change
_________________________ periods
Life span approach vs. particular periods
approach
Nature vs. nurture
Review and Apply
REVIEW
____development, a scientific approach to
understanding human growth and change
throughout life, encompasses physical,
cognitive, and social and personality
development.
Review and Apply
REVIEW
Membership in a ____ based on age and place
of birth, subjects people to influences based
on historical events (history-graded
influences).
People are also subject to ____ influences,
____ influences, and non-normative life
events.
Review and Apply
REVIEW
Four important issues in life span development
are:
____ versus discontinuity in development,
the importance of ____ periods, whether to
focus on certain periods or on the entire
____and the nature–____controversy.
Review and Apply
APPLY
What are some examples of the ways culture
(either broad culture or aspects of culture)
affected your development?
How do different age-graded influences and
history-graded influences contribute to
making you and your parents different?
How might YOUR cohort membership affect
your readiness for and success in this class?
Module 1.2
Theoretical perspectives in life
span development
What is a theory?
THEORY: __________________________
____________ concerning phenomena of
interest.
What theories will we explore?
First, let’s look at and learn the 6 major
perspectives:
•
•
•
•
•
•
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
_______________
HINT: Use Table 1.3 as a guide
Perspectives, Theories, and
Approaches
Second, we can match theories and
approaches with each perspective:
Psychodynamic
– Psychoanalytic
– Psychosocial
Behavioral
– Classical Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
– Social Cogn.Learning
Perspectives, Theories, and
Approaches (continued)
Cognitive
Information Processing
Cognitive Neuroscience
Humanistic
Perspectives, Theories, and
Approaches (continued)
Contextual
Bioecological
Sociocultural
Evolutionary
Overwhelmed?
Now let’s organize all this
information into workable pieces!
We will use theory maps that
contain the following sections:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Perspective
Theory
Theorist
What develops
How development proceeds
Principles
Key terms
Theory Map
Perspective: Psychodynamic
Theory: Psychoanalytic Theory
Theorist: Freud
What develops: Focus on inner person, unconscious
forces act to determine personality and behavior
How development proceeds: Behavior motivated by inner
forces, memories, and conflicts
Principles:
Personality has three aspects- ___________________
Psychosexual development involves series of _______
__________________________________________
Other key terms:________________________________
Theory Map
Perspective: Psychodynamic
Theory: Psychosocial Theory
Theorist: Erikson
Primary focus: Focus on social interactions w others
How development proceeds: Development occurs through
changes in interactions with and understanding of others and in
self knowledge and understanding of members of society
Principles:
Psychosocial development involves 8 distinct fixed universal
stages
Each stage presents crisis/conflict to be resolved; growth and
change are lifelong
Other key terms:_____________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
_________________________________________________
Psychodynamic Perspective
Assessing
Widely Questioned or Rejected
Widely Accepted
FREUD
FREUD
•Effects of childhood stages on
later development not validated
•Notion of unconscious
influences accepted by many
ERIKSON
•Notion of development
throughout lifespan receives
considerable support
•Generalizability to broader,
multicultural populations not
supported
•Primary focus on male
development criticized
ERIKSON
•More focus on men than women
•Vague and difficult to test
rigorously in some parts
Theory Map
Perspective: Behavioral
Theorist: John B. Watson
What develops: Focus on observable behavior and
outside environment stimuli
How development proceeds: Behavior is result of
continuing exposure to specific environmental factors;
developmental change is quantitative
Principles: Classical conditioning
Other key terms: Stimulus substitution; conditioned
automatic response
Theory Map
Perspective: Behavioral
Theorist: B. F. Skinner
What develops: Focus on observable behavior and
outside environmental stimuli
How development proceeds: Voluntary response is
strengthened or weakened by association with negative
or positive consequences
Principles: Operant conditioning
Other key terms: Deliberate actions on environment;
behavior modification; reinforcement; punishment;
extinguished behavior
Theory Map
Perspective: Behavioral
Theorist: Albert Bandura and colleagues
What develops: Focus on learning through imitation
How development proceeds: Behavior is learned through
observation
Principles: Social-cognitive learning occurs through four
steps: attend/perceive, recall, accurately reproduce,
motivated to carry out behavior
Other key terms: Model; reward; “Fearless Peter”
Behavioral Perspective
Assessing
Widely Accepted
Widely Questioned or Rejected
WATSON AND SKINNER
WATSON AND SKINNER
•Based on observable
behaviors that are easier to
quantify in research
•Social learning theorists
suggest oversimplification
•Contributions to educational
techniques for children with
severe mental retardation
•Behaviorism does not account
for free will, internal influences
(e.g., moods, thoughts,
feelings), or other types of
learning
Theory Map
Perspective: Cognitive perspective
Theorist: Jean Piaget
What develops: Focus on processes that allow people to know,
understand, and think about the world
How development proceeds: Human thinking is arranged in
organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions;
understanding of world improves through assimilation and accommodation
Principles: Classical conditioning
Other key terms: Schemes and schemas
Cognitive Perspective
Assessing
Widely Accepted
Widely Questioned or Rejected
PIAGET
PIAGET
•Theory profoundly influenced
understanding of cognition
•Some specifics questions
about changes in cognitive
capabilities over time (e.g.,
timing of emerging skills)
•Broad view of sequence of
cognitive development is
accurate
•Universality of stages has
been disputed
•Cultural differences in
emergence of particular
cognitive skills suggested
•Growth is more continuous
than proposed
Theory Map
Perspective: Cognitive perspective
Theorist: Information-processing approach
What develops: Focus is primarily on memory
How development proceeds: Information is thought to be processed
in serial, discontinuous manner as it moves from stage to stage (Stage
theory model); information is stored in multiple locations throughout the
brain by means of networks of connections (connectionistic model)
Principles: Cognitive development proceeds quickly in certain areas and
more slowly in others; experience plays greater role in cognition
Other key terms: neo-Piagetian theory
Cognitive Perspective
Assessing
Widely Accepted
Widely Questioned or Rejected
INFORMATION-PROCESSING
INFORMATION-PROCESSING
•Theory may currently be
central part of understanding of
development
•Theory does not offer complete
explanation for behavior or
address social context in which
development takes place
Theory Map
Perspective: Cognitive perspective
Theorist: Cognitive Neuroscience Approach
What develops: Focus on cognitive development through lens of brain
How development proceeds: Approach considers internal, mental
processes, but focuses specifically on the neurological activity that underlies
thinking, problem solving, and other cognitive behavior
Principles: Associations between specific genes and wide range of
disorders are identified
Other key terms: Autism; schizophrenia
Theory Map
Perspective: Humanistic Perspective
Theorist: Carl Rogers; Abraham Maslow
What develops: Focus on each individual’s ability and motivation to reach
more advanced levels of maturity; people naturally seek to reach full
potential
How development proceeds: Free of supernaturalism, approach
recognizes human beings as a part of nature and holds that values
(religious, ethical, social, or political) have their source in human experience
and culture
Principles: All people have need for positive regard resulting from
underlying wish to be loved and respected; positive regard comes from
others
Other key terms: Free will; positive self-regard; self-actualization
Humanistic Perspective
Assessing
Widely Accepted
Widely Questioned or Rejected
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
•Some concepts (e.g., selfactualization) help describe
important aspects of human
behavior
•No clear, major impact on field
of lifespan development due to
lack of identification of broad
developmental change that is
the result of increasing age or
experience
•Humanistic influences seen in
wide range of areas from health
care to business
Theory Map
Perspective: Contextual Perspective
Theorist: Urie Bronfenbrenner/ Biological Approach
What develops: Focus relationship between individuals and their physical,
cognitive, personality, and social worlds
How development proceeds: Development is unique and intimately
tied to a person’s social and cultural context; four levels of environment
simultaneously influence individuals
Principles: Each system contains roles, norms, and rules
that can powerfully shape development
Other key terms: Microsystem; ecosystem; exosystem; macrosystem;
chronosystem
Bioecological Approach to
Development
Figure 1-2. Bronfenbrenner’s Approach to Development
Bioecological Approach
Assessing
Widely Accepted
Widely Questioned or Rejected
BIOECOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
BIOECOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
•Perspective helped generate
much research
•Some argue that perspective
pays insufficient attention to
biological factors
•Suggestion of mutual
accommodation between the
developing individual and the
environment affects children’s
develop is of considerable
importance to child
development
•Difficult to test for
“neighborhood” effects
Theory Map
Perspective: Sociocultural Perspective
Theorist: Lev Vygotsky
What develops: As children play and cooperate with others, they learn
what is important in their society and advance cognitively in their
understanding of the world
How development proceeds: Approach emphasizes how cognitive
development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members
Principles: Development is a reciprocal transaction between people in the
child’s environment and the child.
Other key terms: Social interactions, zone of proximal development
(ZPD), interpsychological and intrapsychologial levels
Sociocultural Approach
Assessing
Widely Accepted
Widely Questioned or Rejected
SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
SOCIOCULTURAL
PERSPECTIVE
•One of first developmentalists
to recognize importance of
culture
•Some argue that emphasis on
role of culture and social
experience presented at
expense of focus on effects of
biological factors on
development
•Perspective becoming
increasingly influential with
growing acknowledgement of
central importance of cultural
factors in development
•Approach minimizes role
individuals play in shaping own
environment
Theory Map
Perspective: Evolutionary Perspective
Theorist: Charles Darwin/Konrad Lorenz
What develops: Through a process of natural selection traits in a species
that are adaptive to its environment are creative
How development proceeds: Behavior is result of genetic inheritance
from ancestors
Principles: Ethological influence (examines ways in which biological
makeup affects behavior)
Other key terms: Behavioral genetics; relationship to psychological
disorders (e.g., schizophrenia)
Evolutionary Approach
Assessing
Widely Accepted
Widely Questioned or Rejected
EVOLUTIONARY
PERSPECTIVE
EVOLUTIONARY
PERSPECTIVE
•Evolutionary approach is
increasingly visible in field of
lifespan development
•Some argue that perspective
pays insufficient attention to
environmental and social
factors involved in producing
children’s and adults’ behavior
•Experimental testing of theory
is difficult
Which Approach is “Right”?
Why asking about right may be
wrong…
Each perspective is based on its own
premises and focuses on different aspects
of development
Same developmental phenomenon can be
examined from a number of perspectives
simultaneously
Review and Apply
REVIEW
The psychoanylytic looks primarily at the influence of
internal, unconscious forces on development.
The bahvioral focuses on external, observable
behaviors as the key to development.
The cognitive focuses on mental activity.
Review and Apply
REVIEW
The ___humanitic__ maintains that each individual
has the ability and motivation to reach advanced
levels of maturity and that people naturally seek to
reach their full potential.
The _____ focuses on the relationship between
individuals and the social context in which they
lead their lives.
The __Evolutionary___ seeks to identify behavior
that is a result of genetic inheritance.
Review and Apply
REVIEW
Finally, the ___ perspective seeks to identify
behavior that is a result of our genetic
inheritance from our ancestors.
Review and Apply
APPLY
What examples of human behavior have you seen
that seem as though they may have been
inherited from our ancestors because they
helped individuals survive and adapt more
effectively? Why do you think they are inherited?
How do the concepts of social learning and
modeling relate to the mass media?
How might exposure to mass media influence a
child’s family life?
Module 1.3
Research methods
Posing Developmental
Questions
What is a theory?
How can a theory be tested?
What did you learn about…?
Experimental Studies
-Manipulation to look at outcome
Hypotheses
-Wut we think might happen being
tested
IV and DV
The Scientific Method
1. Identifying questions of interest
2. Formulating an explanation
3. Carrying out research that either lends
support to the explanation or refutes it
Hypothesis
Can you think of a hypothesis related to
grades assigned in this class?
How could your hypothesis be tested?
Categories of Research
Correlational research
Experimental research
Figure 1-3. Finding a Correlation
Correlational Studies
Do not prove causality
Do provide important information
Correlation Coefficient
Types of Correlational Studies
Naturalistic observation
Ethnography
Case studies; surveys
Psychophysiological methods
EEG, CAT fMRI
Determining Cause and Effect
Experiment
Groups
Treatment/experimental
Control
Variables
Independent
Dependent
_______subject selection and assignment
So…true or false?
A hypothesis predicts how dependent
variables depends on the manipulation
of the independent variable.
So what IS an independent
variable?
Why aren’t experiments always
used?
____________impossible
____________impossible
Choosing Research Settings
Field study
Capture behavior in real-life settings
Participants may behave more naturally
May be used in correlational studies and
experiments
Often difficult to exert control over situation and
environment
Choosing Research Settings
Laboratory study
Hold events constant
Enables researchers to learn more clearly how
treatment affect participants
Complementary Approaches
Theoretical research
Applied research
Consider this…
What are some policy issues affecting
children and adolescents that are currently
being debated nationally?
Despite the existence of research data that
might inform policy about development,
politicians rarely discuss such data in their
speeches. Why do you think that is the
case?
Measuring Developmental
Change
Longitudinal Studies
Measuring individual change; how people change
across time (Ex: watch life progress of kids from birth
to adulthood)
Cross-Sectional Studies
Measuring people of different ages at same
point in time (Ex: How are 60 yr olds different
from 40 yr olds?)
Sequential Studies
Combine longitudinal and cross-sectional
Ex: Compare 40 vs 60 yo over time
Figure 1-4. Research Techniques for Studying Development
Ethics and Research
Ethical Guidelines for Researchers (SRCD)
Researchers must protect participants from physical and
psychological harm.
Researchers must obtain informed consent from
participants before their involvement in a study.
The use of deception in research must be justified and
cause no harm.
Participants’ privacy must be maintained.
Becoming an Informed
Consumer of Development
Thinking critically about “expert” advice
Who are the “experts” in your life?
What expert advice have you received about going
to college?
Why (or why not) did you value or use this advice?
Becoming an expert about
experts!
Consider the source.
Evaluate credentials.
Understand difference between anecdotal
and scientific evidence.
Find details of research-based advice.
Do not overlook cultural context of
information.
Recognize that popular consensus does not
guarantee scientific validity.
Review and Apply
REVIEW
• ____ in development are systematically derived
explanations of facts or phenomena. Theories
suggest ____, which are predictions that can be
tested.
• ____ studies examine relationships between
factors without demonstrating causality. ____
observation, ____ studies, and ____ research
are types of correlational studies.
Review and Apply
REVIEW
• Correlational studies examine
relationships between factors without
demonstrating ____.