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Säästva arengu psühholoogia Loengu eesmärk: • Vaadata sisse ühisomandi ja tarbimisega seotud psühholoogilistesse probleemidesse ja nende lahendamise katsetesse erinevate strateegiate abil ning neid kriitiliselt analüüsida Kas inimese põhjustatud kliimamuutus on olemas? Though 97% of climate scientists agree that human-driven climate change exists, there are still a number of people who deny that claim. The reasons for their dissent are varied, but many claim that the warming of the Earth has actually paused, and apparent increases in global temperature are caused by flawed climate models that overestimate facts. Whileprevious studies have already refuted the idea of “paused” global warming, a new paper inNature by Jochem Marotzke and Piers Forster of the Max Planck Institute of Meteorology in Hamburg has concluded that most climate models are not flawed, and global temperatures are still very much on the rise. Since 2000, the Earth’s average surface temperature has increased by 0.06° C; a fraction of what was predicted by the IPCC during the 1990s. This apparent plateau has been used as ammunition by climate deniers who accuse scientists of over-inflating results from climate models. Marotzke and Forster’s new paper analyzes the methodologies of climate models, revealing no inherent flaws in the models, even when they don’t match observations. They also conclude that this century’s slight increase in surface temperature, which deniers are labeling as a “pause,” is actually due to natural climate fluctuations. Many other metrics, including ocean temperature, show that the climate is indeed changing. “The claim that climate models systematically overestimate global warming caused by rising greenhouse gas concentrations is wrong,” Marotzke said in a press release. Marotzke and Forster analyzed 114 models by comparing their predictions of annual global surface temperatures in 15 year periods from 1900-2012 against the actual temperature recorded for that year. When these predicted numbers were compared to the actual temperature, they found that the models did a pretty good job. For the most part, the predictions were +/- 0.3° C of the observed temperature. This effectively absolved the models of having fundamental flaws that overestimate the climate's response to atmospheric carbon dioxide. “On the whole, the simulated trends agree with the observations,” Marotzke continued. “In particular, the observed trends are not skewed in any discernible way compared to the simulations.” Of course, that doesn’t mean every model is perfect; otherwise they would all match one another as well as observed data. The researchers then compared the models by examining the factors and values that the models considered or assumed, in search of an explanation of why the numbers weren’t aligning. They found that differing models used different degrees of sensitivity to solar radiation and had different assumptions about the amount of heat absorbed by the oceans, which would alter surface temperature predictions. However, even the models that were the most sensitive to carbon dioxide didn’t lead to a prediction that was drastically overestimated, as climate deniers have claimed. “If excessive sensitivity of the models caused the models to calculate too great a temperature trend over the past 15 years, the models that assume a high sensitivity would calculate a greater temperature trend than the others,” Forster noted. The researchers concluded that random variations, which cannot be accurately accounted for within computer simulations, are responsible for models and observation not matching up. It is also clear that the climate is definitely warming, with 2014 dubbed as the warmest year on record, and that nine out of the ten hottest years ever have occurred since 2000. „The massive downside to meaningful action on climate change is that if global warming is false we're left with a clean environment and a sustainable economic model. What a bummer." http://sci-universe.tumblr.com/post/111118395145/darjeelingandcokeprogressiveauspol-the "Drivers of phenomena such as climate change, loss of species' habitats, and ocean acidification rarely are the result of malicious intent, but rather the consequence of the lifestyles of billions of humans. Accordingly, conservation must change behavior." (CPI faculty member, P. Wesley Schultz, "Conservation Means Behavior„, in Conservation Biology 25: 1080-183, 2011) - http://www.apadivisions.org/division-34/interests/conservation/index.aspx http://www.conpsychmeasures.com/CONPSYCHMeasures/index.html Conservation psychology is the scientific study of the reciprocal relationships between humans and the rest of nature, with the goal of encouraging conservation of the natural world. This relatively new field is oriented toward conservation of ecosystems, conservation of resources, and quality of life issues for humans and other species. /…/ Since most environmental problems are caused by human behaviors, human behavioral changes are necessary in order to address them. Psychologists have much to offer in terms of understanding human-nature experiences and what motivates people to protect such relationships. Tarbimine ja keskkonnapsühholoogia • Ohtlikuks peetakse asju, mis on: kontrollimatud, ebaõiglased, katastroofilised, tundmatud, hirmutavad ning võivad mõjutada ka tulevasi põlvkondi (nt tuumaenergia) • Vähem ohtlikuks peetakse asju, mis on: vabatahtlikud, individuaalsed, mitte globaalselt katastroofilised, kergesti katkestatavad ja pigem tulevasi põlvkondi mittemõjutavad (nt autoga sõitmine) Ühisomandi dilemma näited: Cahokia, 12. sajand Ühisomandi dilemma näited: Araali meri, 20. sajand The shrinking of the Aral Sea has been called "one of the planet's worst environmental disasters." The region's once prosperous fishing industry has been essentially destroyed, bringing unemployment and economic hardship. The Aral Sea region is also heavily polluted, with consequent serious public health problems. The retreat of the sea has reportedly also caused local climate change, with summers becoming hotter and drier, and winters colder and longer. /…/ In an ongoing effort in Kazakhstan to save and replenish the North Aral Sea, a dam project was completed in 2005; in 2008, the water level in this lake had risen by 24 m from its lowest level in 2007. Salinity has dropped, and fish are again found in sufficient numbers for some fishing to be viable. • • - Edney, 1979 Lahendused: ühisomandi ümberstruktureerimine (nt privatiseerimine); sotsiaalsete suhete ümberstruktureerimine (kommunikatsioon; infovahetus; reeglid; liidri valimine; usaldus, koostöö) - Edulugu: Aek Nabara’ näide Põhja-Sumatral: edu tänu mõistmisele, et bioloogiline mitmekesisus, kogukonna heaolu, majandushuvi ja kliima vajavad kompleksset lähenemist. „If the orangutan benefits and the community doesn’t, we lose the foundation for protecting the whole. /…/ When you talk with the head of government, your language is economic; when you talk to the communities, the language is welfare; when you talk to business, you talk about their future profits; when you talk to other NGOs, the language is environment.“ (bioloog Dr Jatna Supriatna) Mille kaudu inimeste keskkonnasõbralikkust mõjutada? • Informatsioonilised strateegiad – keskenduvad teadmiste, teadlikkuse, normide või hoiakute muutmisele (Steg et al., 2012) • Strukturaalsed strateegiad – keskenduvad nende tingimuste muutmisele, mille raames käitumuslikke otsuseid tehakse (nt prügikastide olemasolu, piirangud, seadused) Millised võiksid olla efektiivsemad ettevõtete kontekstis; millised üksikisikute puhul? GRUPITÖÖ 2-3 inimesega: kavandage üks, võimalikult konkreetne strateegia, kuidas muuta inimeste või tootmisettevõtte käitumist/tegevust keskkonnasõbralikumaks Sekkumisuuringute häid tavasid: • Mida mõjutada? Neid asju, millel on keskkondlik mõju. Kilekotid vs imporditud kartulid • Sekkumine peab olema teooriapõhine! Mis toimib ja miks, mis mehhanismi kaudu; lihtsam mõõta; keskkonnasõbraliku käitumise mõistmine ja muutmine muutub võimalikuks • Pretest/ posttest/ kontrollgrupp – korralik mõõtmine. Pluss psühholoogilised tegurid – et aru saada, miks inimene käitus, nagu ta käitus ja miks lahendus töötas või ei töötanud For instance, failure of an energy conservation campaign to change behaviour may be attributable to the fact that people already have sufficient knowledge about how to save energy. Info edastamine • Eeldab, et inimesed ei tea, et selline keskkonnaprobleem on ja mida sellega ette võtta (knowledge-deficit model) • Üldiselt ebaefektiivne – teadmine võib muutuda, käitumine mitte (Staats et al., 1996) • Efektiivne, kui on tailor-made sõnum (Abrahamse, Steg, Vlek, & Rothengatter, 2007) • Sotsiaalse õppimise teooria (Bandura, 1977) / inimesed järeldavad, kuidas käituda, teiste käitumise põhjal. TeemeÄra • Normatiivne info, sõnumi raamistamine – käterätiku näide (Goldstein, Cialdini and Griskevicius 2008) For example, a study by Goldstein, Cialdini and Griskevicius (2008) foundthat towelswere reusedmore frequentlywhen hotelguests were provided with descriptive norm information (about how many other guests were reusing towels) comparedwith the Eesmärkide püstitamine • Tugineb eesmärkide püstitamise teoorial, mis ütleb, et inimeste käitumine on eesmärkide saavutamisele suunatud; efektiivseim, kui eesmärgid on suured, aga realistlikud (Locke ja Latham, 1990). • Nn teostamise kavatsused või „Kui…siis“ lubadused – plaanid, milles öeldakse välja, millal, kus ja kuidas püstitatud eesmärk täide viiakse (Schweiger, Gallo & Gollwitzer, 2007) võib parandada eesmärgipüstituse strateegiat; keskkonnasõbralike käitumiste puhul on näidatud selle efektiivsust (Bamberg, 2003). • On efektiivne, kui kombineerida teiste informatsiooniliste strateegiatega Pühendumine • Inimesi palutakse alla kirjutada lubadusele midagi teha, nt muuta oma käitumist. • Töötab, s.t. mõjutab käitumist ilmselt läbi kognitiivse dissonantsi vähendamise (Festinger, 1957) – „lubasin seda, aga nüüd ei teegi.“ • Kombineeritakse teiste strateegiatega (eesmärgid, insentiivid) • On leitud, et erinevates katsetingimustes – kommitmenti väljapressimise mõju on pikaajalisem võrreldes nt mingi meelehea (insentiivi) andmisega. • Aja- ja ressursimahukas, kuna peab individuaalselt lähenema. • Strateegia mõju võib olla ülehinnatud – nõus on osalema vaid need, kes niikuinii on altimad oma käitumisi vastavas suunas muutma Promptid ehk meeldetuletused • „Palun kustuta tuli, aitäh!“ • „Võtsid ainult ühe kätekuivatuspaberi?! Missa nüüd, võta ikka kolm!“ (iroonia ei toimi) • Lühikesed, „on spot“, konkreetse käitumise mõjutamisele suunatud meeldetuletused; eeldab, et keskkonnasoodus hoiak on inimesel juba olemas • Prompti mõte on, et see peaks „üle sõitma“ automaatsest käitumisest ja inimene vajab selle jaoks väikest vihjet või tõuget • Suht biheivioristlik – tänatakse või siis ähvardatakse millegagi • Efektiivne, kui hästi paigutatud; pikaajaline mõju on vilets (Bell et al., 2001); töötab lihtsalt teostatavate käitumiste puhul Tagasiside • Tähendab seda, et inimestele öeldakse, kuidas neil läheb. Näiteks, kas ja kui palju neil on õnnestunud elektrit säästa • Miks töötab – ilmselt seepärast, et luuakse link konkreetse tulemuse ja eelnenud käitumise vahele. Mida sagedasem on tagasiside, seda paremini töötab. • Kas kellelgi on kodus selline vidin, mis näitab elektrikulu? (nn in-home energy display) Või mõnel seadmel? • On leitud, et nt koos kognitiivse dissonantsi tekitamisega töötab päris hästi (Kantola et al., 1984) • Harjumus ja situatiivsed piirangud on sageli sama olulised inimese tarbimiskäitumise mõjutajad kui teadlikud kavatsused (Maio et al., 2007 and Shove, 2010). • Üldised käitumise muutmiseks mõeldud kampaaniad võivad inimesi eri moel ja ka ootamatult mõjutada (Maio et al., 2007) • Üht tüüpi keskkonnasõbralikust käitumisest ei järeldu, et sama inimene ka teist tüüpi keskkonnasõbralikku käitumist järgib (Thøgersen & Crompton, 2009). • Käitumise muutusele suunatud sekkumised nõuavad selliste otsuse langetamise mudelite kasutamist, mis haakuvad konkreetse situatsiooniga (Wilson & Dowlatabadi, 2007), strateegiate kombinatsiooni (Stern, 2000) ja põhistatust sotsiaalpsühholoogia teooriasse (Maio et al., 2007). Teisi lähenemisi • Kriitilise mõtlemise ja keskkonnahariduse seosed Meta-analyses reveal a low correlation (approximately .30) between knowledge about environmental problems and proenvironmental behaviors (Bamberg & Moser, 2007; Hines, Hungerford ja Tomera, 1987). • Isemääramisteooria – autonoomse motivatsiooni tõstmine (vt nt De Groot ja Steg, 2010; Schösler, De Boer ja Boersema, 2012; Weinstein, Przybylski ja Ryan, 2009). • Praimimine – ebateadlikult tajutud stiimulid võiks tõsta soovitud käitumise mõju (Bargh ja Morsella, 2008) SDT (Hedlund-de Witt, de Boer ja Boersema, 2014) See lõik on siin seepärast, et SDT on end väga mitmetes valdkondades sisuka teooriana tõestanud. Äkki äratab huvi lugeda seda lähemalt ka keskkonnapsy kontekstis. • • While intrinsic motivation refers to initiating an activity for its own sake, because it is interesting and satisfying in itself, extrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity to obtain an external goaldthat is, the activity is a means rather than an end in itself. SDT suggests that the key difference between intrinsic and extrinsic aspirationsdand the reason that the pursuit and attainment of these aspirations are differently related to psychological health and well-being4dis the degree to which they are linked to the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2008). These needs are understood to be innate and universal, essential for an individual’s psychological health, and when satisfied, allow optimal functioning and growth (Grouzet et al., 2005; Ryan, 1995). While selfdetermined individuals fulfill these basic needs as a result of being guided by their intrinsic motivations, non-self-determined individuals appear to be less successful in fulfilling their basic psychological needs because they tend to be guided by extrinsic motivations, which tend to be instrumental and acquired instead of inherent. However, intrinsic motivation is not the only type of self-determined motivation. Indeed, much of what people do is not, strictly speaking, intrinsically motivated. SDT therefore recognizes differing degrees to which the value and regulation of a requested or instrumental behavior have been internalized and integrated. Internalization refers to people’s “taking in” a value or a regulation, and integration refers to the further transformation of that regulation into their own so that, subsequently, it will emanate from their sense of self (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 71). Next to being associated with psychological health, subjective well-being, vitality, and a sense of meaning and purpose (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan et al., 2008), intrinsic aspirations have also been found to be related to pro-social and otherfocused value orientations, while extrinsic aspirations were found to predict self-focused value orientations (Weinstein et al., 2009). Moreover, Brown and Kasser (2005) found that people embracing the extrinsic goal of materialism consumed more and had bigger environmental footprints. However, these findings raise the question to what extent we can conceive of sustainable behaviors as intrinsically motivated, as environmental impact is frequently an unintended consequence of a behavior that, defined from the actor’s standpoint, may have nothing to do with the environment (e.g. individuals generally do not cook, or transport themselves for the environment, but because they are hungry, or need to get somewhere). In our eyes, sustainable behaviors can be understood as both intrinsically or extrinsically motivated, depending on the circumstances and the intention (e.g. to benefit the environment; see Stern, 2000). Therefore, while specific sustainable behaviors may be motivated by extrinsic goals such as saving money or enhancing one’s status, we expect that sustainable lifestyles, which are characterized by more sustainable behaviors across the board, generally will tend to be intrinsically motivated. Perhaps such lifestyles are experienced to be intrinsically satisfying as they may support individuals to meet their psychological needs for competence (e.g. through cultivating qualities that are needed for certain sustainable behaviors), for autonomy (e.g. through the sense of living in accordance with one’s own, selfdetermined principles), and for relatedness (e.g. as engaging in these behaviors make one feel in harmony with others and the larger order). Kliimamuutus ja psühholoogia • • • • Erinevad grupid – nt noored – alaesindatud kliimamuutust käsitlevas koostöös ja arutelus; ehkki just noored kõige enam eksponeeritud tulevasele kliimamuutusele Digitaal- ja sotsiaalmeedia kui kasutamata võimalus noorte eri viisidel kliimamuutusega hõivatusse - huvisid, eelistusi arvesse võttev, nende jaoks tähenduslik – lai levik ja kasutus võiks võimaldada erinevaid gruppe teema juurde tuua, nihutada sotsiaalseid norme ja kiirendada muutusi (Senbel, Ngo, ja Blair, 2014) Probleemid: üksikindiviidid tunnevad end väheinformeerituna, tajuvad teema ambivalentsust, ja võimetustunnet, kui oleks vaja tegutseda keerukate probleemide puhul nagu kliimamuutus (Lorenzoni et al., 2007, Lorenzoni and Pidgeon, 2006 and Moser, 2010). Võtted ja vahendid, mis muudavad kliimamuutuse käegakatsutavaks, mis tuginevad teaduslikel andmetel ja sisaldavad inimeste jaoks teostatavaid tegevusi, vähendavad sellist ambivalentsust (Moser, 2010 and Nicholson-Cole, 2005). Samuti: inimeste kaasamine dialoogilisse koostöövormi – koos inimestega säästvama ühiskonna visioonide loomine, vastandina eeldusele, et inimesed lihtsalt aktsepteerivad autoriteetide poolt väljapakutud visioone Moser (2010) • • • Traditsioonilised lähenemised kliimamuutuse-alasele haridusele: defitsiidi mudel, mis eeldab, et inimesel on puudujääk teadmistes ja arusaamises; järelikult on vajalik ja efektiivne ühesuunaline teadmiste jagamine eksperdilt tavainimesele (Cooper, 2011). Sekkumised, mille eesmärk on säästliku käitumise edendamine, põhinevad sageli eeldusel, et mingi teema kohta teadmiste jagamine nt läbi massimeedia kampaaniate toob kaasa käitumise muutuse. Selle kohta on tulemused vastuolulised (Milfont, Duckitt, & Cameron, 2006; MacKenzie-Mohr, 2000 and Shove, 2010). Nolan et al. (2008) leidis, et individuaalne käitumine on tugevamalt mõjutatud kaaslaste käitumisest ja mitte „ülalt-alla“ jagatud informatsioonist. Tegevus peab olema nii-öelda sotsiaalselt valideeritud - s.t. inimesed on mõjutatud sellest, mida teised teevad ja täna näevad nad seda kõige paremini veebikeskkondades (Guadagno, Muscanell, Rice & Roberts, 2013). Cialdini (1984): inimesed kalduvad hindama eesmärkidele pühendumist; nad kalduvad tegema seda, mida teised teevad; ja neid veenavad inimesed, kes neile meeldivad.