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Transcript
Säästva arengu psühholoogia
Loengu eesmärk:
• Vaadata sisse ühisomandi ja tarbimisega
seotud psühholoogilistesse
probleemidesse ja nende lahendamise
katsetesse erinevate strateegiate abil ning
neid kriitiliselt analüüsida
Kas inimese põhjustatud
kliimamuutus on olemas?
Though 97% of climate scientists agree that human-driven climate change exists, there are still a number of people who
deny that claim. The reasons for their dissent are varied, but many claim that the warming of the Earth has actually
paused, and apparent increases in global temperature are caused by flawed climate models that overestimate facts.
Whileprevious studies have already refuted the idea of “paused” global warming, a new paper inNature by Jochem
Marotzke and Piers Forster of the Max Planck Institute of Meteorology in Hamburg has concluded that most climate
models are not flawed, and global temperatures are still very much on the rise.
Since 2000, the Earth’s average surface temperature has increased by 0.06° C; a fraction of what was predicted by the
IPCC during the 1990s. This apparent plateau has been used as ammunition by climate deniers who accuse scientists
of over-inflating results from climate models. Marotzke and Forster’s new paper analyzes the methodologies of climate
models, revealing no inherent flaws in the models, even when they don’t match observations. They also conclude that
this century’s slight increase in surface temperature, which deniers are labeling as a “pause,” is actually due to natural
climate fluctuations. Many other metrics, including ocean temperature, show that the climate is indeed changing.
“The claim that climate models systematically overestimate global warming caused by rising greenhouse gas
concentrations is wrong,” Marotzke said in a press release.
Marotzke and Forster analyzed 114 models by comparing their predictions of annual global surface temperatures in 15
year periods from 1900-2012 against the actual temperature recorded for that year. When these predicted numbers
were compared to the actual temperature, they found that the models did a pretty good job. For the most part, the
predictions were +/- 0.3° C of the observed temperature. This effectively absolved the models of having fundamental
flaws that overestimate the climate's response to atmospheric carbon dioxide.
“On the whole, the simulated trends agree with the observations,” Marotzke continued. “In particular, the observed
trends are not skewed in any discernible way compared to the simulations.”
Of course, that doesn’t mean every model is perfect; otherwise they would all match one another as well as observed
data. The researchers then compared the models by examining the factors and values that the models considered or
assumed, in search of an explanation of why the numbers weren’t aligning. They found that differing models used
different degrees of sensitivity to solar radiation and had different assumptions about the amount of heat absorbed by
the oceans, which would alter surface temperature predictions. However, even the models that were the most sensitive
to carbon dioxide didn’t lead to a prediction that was drastically overestimated, as climate deniers have claimed.
“If excessive sensitivity of the models caused the models to calculate too great a temperature trend over the past 15
years, the models that assume a high sensitivity would calculate a greater temperature trend than the others,” Forster
noted.
The researchers concluded that random variations, which cannot be accurately accounted for within computer
simulations, are responsible for models and observation not matching up. It is also clear that the climate is definitely
warming, with 2014 dubbed as the warmest year on record, and that nine out of the ten hottest years ever have
occurred since 2000.
„The massive downside to meaningful action on climate
change is that if global warming is false we're left with a
clean environment and a sustainable economic model.
What a bummer."
http://sci-universe.tumblr.com/post/111118395145/darjeelingandcokeprogressiveauspol-the
"Drivers of phenomena such as climate change, loss of species'
habitats, and ocean acidification rarely are the result of malicious intent,
but rather the consequence of the lifestyles of billions of humans.
Accordingly, conservation must change behavior."
(CPI faculty member, P. Wesley Schultz, "Conservation Means Behavior„, in
Conservation Biology 25: 1080-183, 2011)
-
http://www.apadivisions.org/division-34/interests/conservation/index.aspx
http://www.conpsychmeasures.com/CONPSYCHMeasures/index.html
 Conservation psychology is the scientific study of the reciprocal
relationships between humans and the rest of nature, with the goal
of encouraging conservation of the natural world. This relatively new
field is oriented toward conservation of ecosystems, conservation of
resources, and quality of life issues for humans and other species.
/…/ Since most environmental problems are caused by human
behaviors, human behavioral changes are necessary in order to
address them. Psychologists have much to offer in terms of
understanding human-nature experiences and what motivates
people to protect such relationships.
Tarbimine ja keskkonnapsühholoogia
• Ohtlikuks peetakse asju, mis on: kontrollimatud,
ebaõiglased, katastroofilised, tundmatud,
hirmutavad ning võivad mõjutada ka tulevasi
põlvkondi (nt tuumaenergia)
• Vähem ohtlikuks peetakse asju, mis on:
vabatahtlikud, individuaalsed, mitte globaalselt
katastroofilised, kergesti katkestatavad ja pigem
tulevasi põlvkondi mittemõjutavad (nt autoga
sõitmine)
Ühisomandi dilemma näited: Cahokia, 12. sajand
Ühisomandi dilemma näited: Araali meri, 20.
sajand
The shrinking of the Aral Sea has been called "one of the planet's worst environmental disasters." The
region's once prosperous fishing industry has been essentially destroyed, bringing unemployment and
economic hardship. The Aral Sea region is also heavily polluted, with consequent serious public health
problems. The retreat of the sea has reportedly also caused local climate change, with summers
becoming hotter and drier, and winters colder and longer. /…/ In an ongoing effort in Kazakhstan to
save and replenish the North Aral Sea, a dam project was completed in 2005; in 2008, the water level
in this lake had risen by 24 m from its lowest level in 2007. Salinity has dropped, and fish are again
found in sufficient numbers for some fishing to be viable.
•
•
-
Edney, 1979
Lahendused:
ühisomandi ümberstruktureerimine (nt privatiseerimine);
sotsiaalsete suhete ümberstruktureerimine
(kommunikatsioon; infovahetus; reeglid; liidri valimine;
usaldus, koostöö)
- Edulugu: Aek Nabara’ näide Põhja-Sumatral: edu tänu
mõistmisele, et bioloogiline mitmekesisus,
kogukonna heaolu, majandushuvi ja kliima vajavad
kompleksset lähenemist. „If the orangutan benefits and
the community doesn’t, we lose the foundation for
protecting the whole. /…/ When you talk with the head
of government, your language is economic; when you
talk to the communities, the language is welfare; when
you talk to business, you talk about their future profits;
when you talk to other NGOs, the language is
environment.“
(bioloog Dr Jatna Supriatna)
Mille kaudu inimeste keskkonnasõbralikkust
mõjutada?
• Informatsioonilised strateegiad – keskenduvad
teadmiste, teadlikkuse, normide või hoiakute muutmisele
(Steg et al., 2012)
• Strukturaalsed strateegiad – keskenduvad nende
tingimuste muutmisele, mille raames käitumuslikke
otsuseid tehakse (nt prügikastide olemasolu, piirangud,
seadused)
 Millised võiksid olla efektiivsemad ettevõtete kontekstis;
millised üksikisikute puhul?
 GRUPITÖÖ 2-3 inimesega: kavandage üks, võimalikult
konkreetne strateegia, kuidas muuta inimeste või
tootmisettevõtte käitumist/tegevust
keskkonnasõbralikumaks
Sekkumisuuringute häid
tavasid:
• Mida mõjutada? Neid asju, millel on keskkondlik
mõju. Kilekotid vs imporditud kartulid
• Sekkumine peab olema teooriapõhine! Mis
toimib ja miks, mis mehhanismi kaudu; lihtsam
mõõta; keskkonnasõbraliku käitumise mõistmine
ja muutmine muutub võimalikuks
• Pretest/ posttest/ kontrollgrupp – korralik
mõõtmine. Pluss psühholoogilised tegurid – et
aru saada, miks inimene käitus, nagu ta käitus ja
miks lahendus töötas või ei töötanud For instance, failure
of an energy conservation campaign to change behaviour may be attributable to the
fact that people already have sufficient knowledge about how to save energy.
Info edastamine
• Eeldab, et inimesed ei tea, et selline keskkonnaprobleem
on ja mida sellega ette võtta (knowledge-deficit model)
• Üldiselt ebaefektiivne – teadmine võib muutuda,
käitumine mitte (Staats et al., 1996)
• Efektiivne, kui on tailor-made sõnum (Abrahamse, Steg,
Vlek, & Rothengatter, 2007)
• Sotsiaalse õppimise teooria (Bandura, 1977) / inimesed
järeldavad, kuidas käituda, teiste käitumise põhjal.
TeemeÄra
• Normatiivne info, sõnumi raamistamine – käterätiku
näide (Goldstein, Cialdini and Griskevicius 2008) For
example, a study by Goldstein, Cialdini and Griskevicius (2008) foundthat towelswere
reusedmore frequentlywhen hotelguests were provided with descriptive norm
information (about how many other guests were reusing towels) comparedwith the
Eesmärkide püstitamine
• Tugineb eesmärkide püstitamise teoorial, mis ütleb, et
inimeste käitumine on eesmärkide saavutamisele
suunatud; efektiivseim, kui eesmärgid on suured, aga
realistlikud (Locke ja Latham, 1990).
• Nn teostamise kavatsused või „Kui…siis“ lubadused –
plaanid, milles öeldakse välja, millal, kus ja kuidas
püstitatud eesmärk täide viiakse (Schweiger, Gallo &
Gollwitzer, 2007) võib parandada eesmärgipüstituse
strateegiat; keskkonnasõbralike käitumiste puhul on
näidatud selle efektiivsust (Bamberg, 2003).
• On efektiivne, kui kombineerida teiste informatsiooniliste
strateegiatega
Pühendumine
• Inimesi palutakse alla kirjutada lubadusele midagi teha,
nt muuta oma käitumist.
• Töötab, s.t. mõjutab käitumist ilmselt läbi kognitiivse
dissonantsi vähendamise (Festinger, 1957) – „lubasin
seda, aga nüüd ei teegi.“
• Kombineeritakse teiste strateegiatega (eesmärgid,
insentiivid)
• On leitud, et erinevates katsetingimustes – kommitmenti
väljapressimise mõju on pikaajalisem võrreldes nt mingi
meelehea (insentiivi) andmisega.
• Aja- ja ressursimahukas, kuna peab individuaalselt
lähenema.
• Strateegia mõju võib olla ülehinnatud – nõus on osalema
vaid need, kes niikuinii on altimad oma käitumisi
vastavas suunas muutma
Promptid ehk meeldetuletused
• „Palun kustuta tuli, aitäh!“
• „Võtsid ainult ühe kätekuivatuspaberi?! Missa nüüd, võta
ikka kolm!“ (iroonia ei toimi)
• Lühikesed, „on spot“, konkreetse käitumise mõjutamisele
suunatud meeldetuletused; eeldab, et keskkonnasoodus
hoiak on inimesel juba olemas
• Prompti mõte on, et see peaks „üle sõitma“
automaatsest käitumisest ja inimene vajab selle jaoks
väikest vihjet või tõuget
• Suht biheivioristlik – tänatakse või siis ähvardatakse
millegagi
• Efektiivne, kui hästi paigutatud; pikaajaline mõju on vilets
(Bell et al., 2001); töötab lihtsalt teostatavate käitumiste
puhul
Tagasiside
• Tähendab seda, et inimestele öeldakse, kuidas neil
läheb. Näiteks, kas ja kui palju neil on õnnestunud
elektrit säästa
• Miks töötab – ilmselt seepärast, et luuakse link
konkreetse tulemuse ja eelnenud käitumise vahele. Mida
sagedasem on tagasiside, seda paremini töötab.
• Kas kellelgi on kodus selline vidin, mis näitab
elektrikulu? (nn in-home energy display) Või mõnel
seadmel?
• On leitud, et nt koos kognitiivse dissonantsi tekitamisega
töötab päris hästi (Kantola et al., 1984)
• Harjumus ja situatiivsed piirangud on sageli sama olulised inimese
tarbimiskäitumise mõjutajad kui teadlikud kavatsused (Maio et al.,
2007 and Shove, 2010).
• Üldised käitumise muutmiseks mõeldud kampaaniad võivad inimesi
eri moel ja ka ootamatult mõjutada (Maio et al., 2007)
• Üht tüüpi keskkonnasõbralikust käitumisest ei järeldu, et sama
inimene ka teist tüüpi keskkonnasõbralikku käitumist järgib
(Thøgersen & Crompton, 2009).
• Käitumise muutusele suunatud sekkumised nõuavad selliste otsuse
langetamise mudelite kasutamist, mis haakuvad konkreetse
situatsiooniga (Wilson & Dowlatabadi, 2007), strateegiate
kombinatsiooni (Stern, 2000) ja põhistatust sotsiaalpsühholoogia
teooriasse (Maio et al., 2007).
Teisi lähenemisi
• Kriitilise mõtlemise ja keskkonnahariduse seosed
Meta-analyses reveal a low correlation (approximately .30)
between knowledge about environmental problems and
proenvironmental behaviors (Bamberg & Moser, 2007;
Hines, Hungerford ja Tomera, 1987).
• Isemääramisteooria – autonoomse motivatsiooni
tõstmine (vt nt De Groot ja Steg, 2010; Schösler, De
Boer ja Boersema, 2012; Weinstein, Przybylski ja Ryan,
2009).
• Praimimine – ebateadlikult tajutud stiimulid võiks tõsta
soovitud käitumise mõju (Bargh ja Morsella, 2008)
SDT (Hedlund-de Witt, de Boer ja Boersema, 2014)
See lõik on siin seepärast, et SDT on end väga mitmetes valdkondades sisuka
teooriana tõestanud. Äkki äratab huvi lugeda seda lähemalt ka keskkonnapsy
kontekstis.
•
•
While intrinsic motivation refers to initiating an activity for its own sake, because it is interesting and satisfying in itself,
extrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity to obtain an external goaldthat is, the activity is a means rather than an
end in itself. SDT suggests that the key difference between intrinsic and extrinsic aspirationsdand the reason that the pursuit
and attainment of these aspirations are differently related to psychological health and well-being4dis the degree to which
they are linked to the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Ryan &
Deci, 2000; Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2008). These needs are understood to be innate and universal, essential for an individual’s
psychological health, and when satisfied, allow optimal functioning and growth (Grouzet et al., 2005; Ryan, 1995). While selfdetermined individuals fulfill these basic needs as a result of being guided by their intrinsic motivations, non-self-determined
individuals appear to be less successful in fulfilling their basic psychological needs because they tend to be guided by
extrinsic motivations, which tend to be instrumental and acquired instead of inherent. However, intrinsic motivation is not the
only type of self-determined motivation. Indeed, much of what people do is not, strictly speaking, intrinsically motivated. SDT
therefore recognizes differing degrees to which the value and regulation of a requested or instrumental behavior have been
internalized and integrated. Internalization refers to people’s “taking in” a value or a regulation, and integration refers to the
further transformation of that regulation into their own so that, subsequently, it will emanate from their sense of self (Ryan &
Deci, 2000, p. 71).
Next to being associated with psychological health, subjective well-being, vitality, and a sense of meaning and purpose
(Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan et al., 2008), intrinsic aspirations have also been found to be related to pro-social and otherfocused value orientations, while extrinsic aspirations were found to predict self-focused value orientations (Weinstein et al.,
2009). Moreover, Brown and Kasser (2005) found that people embracing the extrinsic goal of materialism consumed more
and had bigger environmental footprints. However, these findings raise the question to what extent we can conceive of
sustainable behaviors as intrinsically motivated, as environmental impact is frequently an unintended consequence of a
behavior that, defined from the actor’s standpoint, may have nothing to do with the environment (e.g. individuals generally do
not cook, or transport themselves for the environment, but because they are hungry, or need to get somewhere). In our eyes,
sustainable behaviors can be understood as both intrinsically or extrinsically motivated, depending on the circumstances and
the intention (e.g. to benefit the environment; see Stern, 2000). Therefore, while specific sustainable behaviors may be
motivated by extrinsic goals such as saving money or enhancing one’s status, we expect that sustainable lifestyles, which
are characterized by more sustainable behaviors across the board, generally will tend to be intrinsically motivated. Perhaps
such lifestyles are experienced to be intrinsically satisfying as they may support individuals to meet their psychological needs
for competence (e.g. through cultivating qualities that are needed for certain sustainable behaviors), for autonomy (e.g.
through the sense of living in accordance with one’s own, selfdetermined principles), and for relatedness (e.g. as engaging in
these behaviors make one feel in harmony with others and the larger order).
Kliimamuutus ja psühholoogia
•
•
•
•
Erinevad grupid – nt noored – alaesindatud kliimamuutust käsitlevas
koostöös ja arutelus; ehkki just noored kõige enam eksponeeritud
tulevasele kliimamuutusele
Digitaal- ja sotsiaalmeedia kui kasutamata võimalus noorte eri viisidel
kliimamuutusega hõivatusse - huvisid, eelistusi arvesse võttev, nende jaoks
tähenduslik – lai levik ja kasutus võiks võimaldada erinevaid gruppe teema
juurde tuua, nihutada sotsiaalseid norme ja kiirendada muutusi (Senbel,
Ngo, ja Blair, 2014)
Probleemid: üksikindiviidid tunnevad end väheinformeerituna, tajuvad
teema ambivalentsust, ja võimetustunnet, kui oleks vaja tegutseda
keerukate probleemide puhul nagu kliimamuutus (Lorenzoni et al.,
2007, Lorenzoni and Pidgeon, 2006 and Moser, 2010). Võtted ja vahendid,
mis muudavad kliimamuutuse käegakatsutavaks, mis tuginevad teaduslikel
andmetel ja sisaldavad inimeste jaoks teostatavaid tegevusi, vähendavad
sellist ambivalentsust (Moser, 2010 and Nicholson-Cole, 2005).
Samuti: inimeste kaasamine dialoogilisse koostöövormi – koos inimestega
säästvama ühiskonna visioonide loomine, vastandina eeldusele, et
inimesed lihtsalt aktsepteerivad autoriteetide poolt väljapakutud visioone
Moser (2010)
•
•
•
Traditsioonilised lähenemised kliimamuutuse-alasele haridusele: defitsiidi
mudel, mis eeldab, et inimesel on puudujääk teadmistes ja arusaamises;
järelikult on vajalik ja efektiivne ühesuunaline teadmiste jagamine eksperdilt
tavainimesele (Cooper, 2011). Sekkumised, mille eesmärk on säästliku
käitumise edendamine, põhinevad sageli eeldusel, et mingi teema kohta
teadmiste jagamine nt läbi massimeedia kampaaniate toob kaasa käitumise
muutuse. Selle kohta on tulemused vastuolulised (Milfont, Duckitt, &
Cameron, 2006; MacKenzie-Mohr, 2000 and Shove, 2010).
Nolan et al. (2008) leidis, et individuaalne käitumine on tugevamalt
mõjutatud kaaslaste käitumisest ja mitte „ülalt-alla“ jagatud informatsioonist.
Tegevus peab olema nii-öelda sotsiaalselt valideeritud - s.t. inimesed on
mõjutatud sellest, mida teised teevad ja täna näevad nad seda kõige
paremini veebikeskkondades (Guadagno, Muscanell, Rice & Roberts,
2013).
Cialdini (1984): inimesed kalduvad hindama eesmärkidele pühendumist;
nad kalduvad tegema seda, mida teised teevad; ja neid veenavad inimesed,
kes neile meeldivad.