Download Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance

Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Biology 2 Honors
Locating Genes Along Chromosomes
 Mendel’s “hereditary factors” were genes, though this
wasn’t known during his time
 Today we know that genes are located on chromosomes
 The location of a particular gene can be seen by tagging
isolated chromosomes with a fluorescent dye that
highlights the gene
Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the
behavior of chromosomes
 The chromosome theory of inheritance states:
 Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) on chromosomes
 Chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment
 The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis can be said
to account for Mendel’s laws of segregation and
independent assortment
Fig. 15-2
P Generation
Yellow-round
seeds (YYRR)
Y
Y
R
r

R
y
Green-wrinkled
seeds ( yyrr)
y
r
Meiosis
Fertilization
y
R Y
Gametes
r
All F1 plants produce
yellow-round seeds (YyRr)
F1 Generation
R
R
y
r
Y
Y
LAW OF SEGREGATION
The two alleles for each gene
separate during gamete
formation.
y
r
LAW OF INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT Alleles of genes
on nonhomologous
chromosomes assort
independently during gamete
formation.
Meiosis
R
r
Y
y
r
R
Y
y
Metaphase I
1
1
R
r
r
R
Y
y
Anaphase I
Y
y
R
r
Y
y
Metaphase II
r
R
Y
y
2
2
Y
Y
Gametes
R
R
1/
F2 Generation
4 YR
y
r
r
r
1/
Y
Y
y
r
1/
4 yr
4 Yr
y
y
R
R
1/
4 yR
An F1  F1 cross-fertilization
3
3
9
:3
:3
:1
Thomas Hunt Morgan
Drosophila melanogaster
Morgan’s Experimental Evidence
 The first solid evidence associating a specific gene with a
specific chromosome came from Thomas Hunt Morgan
 Morgan’s experiments with fruit flies provided convincing
evidence that chromosomes are the location of Mendel’s
heritable factors
 Several characteristics make fruit flies a convenient
organism for genetic studies:
 They breed at a high rate
 A generation can be bred every two weeks
 They have only four pairs of chromosomes
 Morgan noted wild type, or normal, phenotypes that
were common in the fly populations
 Traits alternative to the wild type are called mutant
phenotypes
Sex-Linked Genes
 Sex-Linked genes: Genes located on sex chromosomes.
 This term is commonly applied to genes on the X
chromosome
 In one experiment, Morgan mated male flies with white eyes
(mutant) with female flies with red eyes (wild type)
 The F1 generation all had red eyes
 The F2 generation showed the 3:1 red:white eye ratio, but only males
had white eyes
 Morgan determined that the white-eyed mutant allele
must be located on the X chromosome
Fig. 15-4
EXPERIMENT
P
Generation

F1
Generation
All offspring
had red eyes
RESULTS
F2
Generation
CONCLUSION
P
Generation
X
X
w+

w+
X
Y
w
Eggs
F1
Generation
w+
Sperm
w+
w+
w
w+
Eggs
F2
Generation
w
w+
w
Sperm
w+
w+
w+
w
w
w+
Linked genes
 Each chromosome has hundreds or thousands of genes
 Genes located on the same chromosome that tend to
be inherited together are called linked genes
 Linked genes tend to be inherited together because
they are located near each other on the same
chromosome
Linkage Affects Inheritance
 Morgan did some experiments with fruit flies to see how
linkage affects inheritance of two characters
 Morgan crossed flies that differed in traits of body color
and wing size
 Morgan found that body color and wing size are usually
inherited together in specific combinations (parental
phenotypes)
 He noted that these genes do not assort independently, and
reasoned that they were on the same chromosome
However, nonparental phenotypes were also produced
 Genetic recombinationoccured: the production of
offspring with combinations of traits differing from either
parent
Fig. 15-UN1
b+ vg+
Parents
in testcross
Most
offspring
b vg

b vg
b vg
b+ vg+
b vg
or
b vg
b vg
Fig. 15-9-4
EXPERIMENT
P Generation (homozygous)
Wild type
(gray body,
normal wings)
Double mutant
(black body,
vestigial wings)

b b vg vg
b+ b+ vg+ vg+
F1 dihybrid
(wild type)
Double mutant
TESTCROSS

b+ b vg+ vg
Testcross
offspring
b b vg vg
Eggs
b+ vg+
Wild type
(gray-normal)
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
Blackvestigial
Grayvestigial
Blacknormal
b vg
Sperm
b b vg vg b+ b vg vg b b vg+ vg
b+ b vg+ vg
PREDICTED RATIOS
If genes are located on different chromosomes:
1
:
1
:
1
:
1
If genes are located on the same chromosome and
parental alleles are always inherited together:
1
:
1
:
0
:
0
965
:
944
:
206
:
185
RESULTS
Recombination of Unlinked Genes: Independent
Assortment of Chromosomes
 Mendel observed that combinations of traits in some
offspring differ from either parent
 Offspring with a phenotype matching one of the parental
phenotypes are called parental types
 Offspring with nonparental phenotypes (new
combinations of traits) are called recombinant types,
or recombinants
 A 50% frequency of recombination is observed for any
two genes on different chromosomes
Recombination of Linked Genes: Crossing Over
 Morgan discovered that genes can be linked, but the
linkage was incomplete, as evident from recombinant
phenotypes
 Morgan proposed that some process must sometimes
break the physical connection between genes on the same
chromosome
 That mechanism was the crossing over of homologous
chromosomes
Fig. 15-10
Testcross
parents
Gray body, normal wings
(F1 dihybrid)
Replication
of chromosomes
Meiosis I
Black body, vestigial wings
(double mutant)
b+ vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
b+ vg+
b+ vg
Meiosis I and II
b vg+
b vg
Meiosis II
Recombinant
chromosomes
Eggs
Testcross
offspring
b+ vg+
965
Wild type
(gray-normal)
b vg
944
Blackvestigial
b+ vg
206
Grayvestigial
b vg+
185
Blacknormal
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
Parental-type offspring
Recombinant offspring
391 recombinants
Recombination
=
frequency
2,300 total offspring
 100 = 17%
b vg
Sperm
Replication
of chromosomes
Fig. 15-10b
Recombinant
chromosomes
Eggs
Testcross
offspring
b vg
b+ vg+
965
Wild type
(gray-normal)
944
Blackvestigial
b+ vg
206
Grayvestigial
b vg+
185
Blacknormal
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
Parental-type offspring
Recombination
frequency
=
Recombinant offspring
391 recombinants
2,300 total offspring
 100 = 17%
b vg
Sperm
Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using
Recombination Data
 Genetic map, an ordered list of the genetic loci along a
particular chromosome
 The farther apart two genes are, the higher the probability
that a crossover will occur between them and therefore the
higher the recombination frequency
 A linkage map is a genetic map of a chromosome based
on recombination frequencies
 Distances between genes can be expressed as map units;
one map unit, or centimorgan, represents a 1%
recombination frequency
 Map units indicate relative distance and order, not precise
locations of genes
Fig. 15-11
RESULTS
Recombination
frequencies
9%
Chromosome
9.5%
17%
b
cn
vg
Fig. 15-12
Short
aristae
0
Long aristae
(appendages
on head)
Mutant phenotypes
Black
body
48.5
Gray
body
Cinnabar
eyes
57.5
Red
eyes
Vestigial
wings
67.0
Normal
wings
Wild-type phenotypes
Brown
eyes
104.5
Red
eyes
 Genes that are far apart on the same chromosome can have
a recombination frequency near 50%
 Such genes are physically linked, but genetically unlinked,
and behave as if found on different chromosomes
 Using methods like chromosomal banding, geneticists can
develop cytogenetic maps of chromosomes
 Cytogenetic maps indicate the positions of genes with
respect to chromosomal features
Sex systems in animals
Fig. 15-6
44 +
XY
44 +
XX
Parents
22 +
22 +
or Y
X
Sperm
+
44 +
XX
or
22 +
X
Egg
44 +
XY
Zygotes (offspring)
(a) The X-Y system
22 +
XX
22 +
X
76 +
ZW
76 +
ZZ
32
(Diploid)
16
(Haploid)
(b) The X-0 system
(c) The Z-W system
(d) The haplo-diploid system
Inheritance of Sex-Linked Genes
 The sex chromosomes have genes for many characters
unrelated to sex
 A gene located on either sex chromosome is called a sexlinked gene
 In humans, sex-linked usually refers to a gene on the
larger X chromosome
 Sex-linked genes follow specific patterns of inheritance
 For a recessive sex-linked trait to be expressed
 A female needs two copies of the allele
 A male needs only one copy of the allele
 Sex-linked recessive disorders are much more common in
males than in females
 Some disorders caused by recessive alleles on the X
chromosome in humans:
 Color blindness
 Duchenne muscular dystrophy
 Hemophilia
Are You Color Blind?
Fig. 15-7
XNXN
Sperm Xn

Xn Y
(a)
Sperm XN
Y
Eggs XN XNXn XNY
XN
XNXn

XNY
Xn
(b)
Sperm Xn
Y
Eggs XN XNXN XNY
XNXn XNY
XNXn

Xn Y
Y
Eggs XN XNXn XNY
Xn XN Xn Y
Xn
(c)
Xn Xn Xn Y
 Some disorders caused by recessive alleles on the X
chromosome in humans:
 Color blindness
 Duchenne muscular dystrophy
 Hemophilia
X Inactivation in Female Mammals
 In mammalian females, one of the two X chromosomes in each
cell is randomly inactivated during embryonic development
 The inactive X condenses into a Barr body
 If a female is heterozygous for a particular gene located on the
X chromosome, she will be a mosaic for that character
 DNA Methylation is the mechanism for X-inactivation
 (methyl groups added to cytosine nucleotide in the DNA
molecule)
Fig. 15-8
X chromosomes
Early embryo:
Two cell
populations
in adult cat:
Active X
Allele for
orange fur
Allele for
black fur
Cell division and
X chromosome
inactivation
Active X
Inactive X
Black fur
Orange fur
Chromosomal Alterations
 Large-scale chromosomal alterations often lead to
spontaneous abortions (miscarriages) or cause a variety of
developmental disorders…bad news!
Abnormal Chromosome Number
 In nondisjunction, pairs of homologous chromosomes
do not separate normally during meiosis
 As a result, one gamete receives two of the same type of
chromosome, and another gamete receives no copy
 Nondisjunction can also occur in mitosis
Fig. 15-13-3
Meiosis I
Nondisjunction
Meiosis II
Nondisjunction
Gametes
n+1
n+1
n–1
n–1
n+1
n–1
n
Number of chromosomes
(a) Nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes in meiosis I
(b) Nondisjunction of sister
chromatids in meiosis II
Nondisjunction video
n
Aneuploidy
 Aneuploidy results from the fertilization of
gametes in which nondisjunction occurred
 Offspring with this condition have an abnormal
number of a particular chromosome
 A monosomic zygote has only one copy of a
particular chromosome
 A trisomic zygote has three copies of a particular
chromosome
Polyploidy
 Polyploidy is a condition in which an organism has
more than two complete sets of chromosomes
 Triploidy (3n) is three sets of chromosomes
 Tetraploidy (4n) is four sets of chromosomes
 Polyploidy is common in plants, but not animals
 Polyploids are more normal in appearance than
aneuploids
Alterations of Chromosome Structure
 Breakage of a chromosome can lead to four types of
changes in chromosome structure:
 Deletion removes a chromosomal segment
 Duplication repeats a segment
 Inversion reverses a segment within a
chromosome
 Translocation moves a segment from one
chromosome to another
Fig. 15-15
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
A B C D E
F G H
A B C D E
F G H
A B C D E
F G H
A B C D E
F G H
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
A B C E
F G H
A B C B C D E
A D C B E
F G H
M N O C D E F G H
Reciprocal
translocation
M N O P Q R
F G H
A B P Q R
Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations
 Alterations of chromosome number and structure are
associated with some serious disorders
 Some types of aneuploidy appear to upset the genetic
balance less than others, resulting in individuals surviving
to birth and beyond
 These surviving individuals have a set of symptoms, or
syndrome, characteristic of the type of aneuploidy
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
 Down syndrome is an
aneuploid condition that results
from three copies of
chromosome 21
 It affects about one out of every
700 children born in the United
States
 The frequency of Down
syndrome increases with the age
of the mother.
Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes
 Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes produces a variety of
aneuploid conditions
 Males
 Klinefelter syndrome is the result of an extra chromosome in a
male, producing sterile XXY individuals (1 in 2000 births?)
 Extra Y (XYY)…apparently normal males (1 in 1000 births?)
 Females
 Monosomy X, called Turner syndrome, produces X0 females, who
are sterile; it is the only known viable monosomy in humans (1 in
5000 births?)
 Triple X Syndrome (XXX)…apparently normal females (1 in 1000
births?)
KARYOTYPE TRISOMY
Lab
 You are provided with paper and a maternal set of
chromosomes. Cut them out and align them in
numerical/size order.
 You will also be provided with the paternal set of
chromosomes. Match them to their homologs.
 Do not paste until okayed by me.
 Determine and report
 Sex
 Monosomy or trisomy (aneuploidy)
 Diagnosis
 Life expectancy
Genomic Imprinting
 For a few mammalian traits, the phenotype depends on which
parent passed along the alleles for those traits
 Such variation in phenotype is called genomic imprinting
 Genomic imprinting involves the silencing of certain genes that
are “stamped” with an imprint during gamete production
 Causes certain genes to be differently expressed in the offspring
depending upon whether the alleles were inherited from the
ovum or from the sperm cell.
Triplet Repeats
Fragile-X syndrome (CGG)
Huntington’s disease (CAG)
Extranuclear Genes
 Extranuclear genes (or cytoplasmic genes) are genes
found in organelles in the cytoplasm
 Mitochondria, chloroplasts carry small circular
DNA molecules
 Extranuclear genes are inherited maternally
because the zygote’s cytoplasm comes from the
egg