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China and South-South Scoping Assessment for Adaptation, Learning and Development (CASSALD) Appendix X: South Africa Country Scoping Report January 2013 Executive Summary This report forms part of the project ‘China and South-South Scoping Assessment for Learning and Development’ (CASSALD). CASSALD is a scoping study on climate adaptation needs, good practice and potential for collaboration in 10 priority developing countries. The aim of the project is to identify key opportunities and avenues for South-South learning on climate change adaptation and how to best channel resources to share China's and developing countries' experiences of integrating climate adaptation into the development process. Climate change is a real threat that faces the world today and will continue to do so in the future. Climate change impacts such as increased temperatures, changes in rainfall patterns, extreme weather events, sea level rise and changes in biodiversity will significantly affect national economies, livelihoods and development. Developing countries are expected to experience severe climate change impacts due to their vulnerability low adaptive capacity and reliance on natural resources. The poor are predicted to suffer the greatest consequences. South Africa has already begun to experience some of the effects of climate change hence there is a need to implement effective adaptation strategies. The impacts of climate change will be exacerbated by existing local and socioeconomic problems such as poverty, low levels of education, skills shortages, limited infrastructure, limited technology and information, poor access to resources and lack of capacity to manage natural resources. It has been predicted that South Africa will experience an increase in temperatures in the summer and autumn in the western part of the country as well as increased incidents of floods and drought. Enhanced temperature inversions are likely to exacerbate air pollution problems. The most vulnerable sectors are health, agriculture (particularly maize production), plant and animal biodiversity, water resources and rangelands. South Africa’s condition of water scarcity will further aggravate difficulties initiated by climate change in the agricultural sector, which in turn affects the country’s GDP due the large role of agricultural production in South Africa’s economy. South Africa has significant poverty levels and is also faced with high incidences of HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis. These concerns make South Africa even more vulnerable to climate change impacts. South Africa is host to 3 biodiversity hotspots in the world and many areas are invaded by alien invasive species and severely degraded therefore necessitating solid adaptation strategies. The South African Government (national, provincial and local) plays a critical role in addressing climate change issues through policy, legislation and planning. There is a focus on development that fosters effective climate change response, poverty reduction and a transition to a climate-resilient and lower–carbon economy. Other stakeholders (private businesses, academia, development partners, NGOs and civil society) play a critical role in realising both climate and development strategies in order to improve human development and promote environmental sustainability. South Africa has a plethora of environmental and climate change policies, strategies and plans that require implementation and enforcement. The government is involved with a number of stakeholders in integrating various sectors to work together on climate change issues and implement plans effectively. Key challenges in this area include a lack of sufficient capacity, limited technology and financial constraints on implementing and enforcing plans. Thus a South-South learning collaboration with other countries facilitated by China would help South Africa in climate change South Africa Country Scoping Report i adaptation practices. South Africa can also play a critical role, particularly in the African region, by helping other African countries develop their climate change adaptation policies and plans. South Africa Country Scoping Report ii Contents Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................ i Acronyms and Abbreviations............................................................................................................. v 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1 2. Framework for Assessment........................................................................................................ 3 2.1. 2.1.1. National Development Strategy.................................................................................. 3 2.1.2. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies........................................................................ 6 2.2. Main Actors and their Roles and Responsibilities................................................................ 8 2.2.1. Government............................................................................................................... 8 2.2.2. Civil society ................................................................................................................ 8 2.2.3. Private sector ............................................................................................................. 9 2.2.4. Academia ................................................................................................................. 10 2.2.5. Development Partners.............................................................................................. 10 2.3. 3. Current National Strategies and Plans ................................................................................ 3 Review of Adaptation Plans and Progress......................................................................... 11 2.3.1. Mainstreaming of climate adaptation ....................................................................... 11 2.3.2. Comprehensiveness ................................................................................................. 12 2.3.3. Implementation........................................................................................................ 13 2.3.4. Mitigation in relation to Adaptation ......................................................................... 13 Needs Assessment................................................................................................................... 28 3.1. Climate Impacts and Priorities by Sector .......................................................................... 28 3.1.1. Water....................................................................................................................... 28 3.1.2. Energy ...................................................................................................................... 29 3.1.3. Infrastructure ........................................................................................................... 30 3.1.4. Land Use and Ecosystems ......................................................................................... 31 3.1.5. Agriculture ............................................................................................................... 32 3.1.6. Health ...................................................................................................................... 33 3.1.7. Industry and Livelihoods........................................................................................... 33 3.2. Gaps and Needs ............................................................................................................... 34 3.2.1. Priority sectors ......................................................................................................... 34 3.2.2. Key opportunities ..................................................................................................... 36 3.2.3. Good practice and maladaptation............................................................................. 36 3.2.4. Resource requirements ............................................................................................ 37 South Africa Country Scoping Report iii 3.2.5. 3.3. 4. 5. 6. Constraints ............................................................................................................... 38 Potential Benefits of Chinese Engagement ....................................................................... 38 Attitudinal Assessment ............................................................................................................ 39 4.1. Development Priorities and Drivers.................................................................................. 39 4.2. Political Will ..................................................................................................................... 39 4.3. Information of Government Policy ................................................................................... 40 4.4. Perceptions of China ........................................................................................................ 40 4.5. Current Chinese Involvement........................................................................................... 40 4.6. Current South-South Learning .......................................................................................... 41 Recommendations................................................................................................................... 45 5.1. Chinese Support of Adaptation......................................................................................... 45 5.2. South-South Learning....................................................................................................... 45 Summary ................................................................................................................................. 46 References ...................................................................................................................................... 47 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... 49 South Africa Country Scoping Report iv Acronyms and Abbreviations ACCCA ACCESS AMCEN AWARD CASSALD CBD CCAA CDM CEEPA CER CJN COP CSAG-UCT DBSA DWA DEA DEAT DFID DME DoE DST DWAF ENDA-TM EWT FAO FBE GCSC GDP GHG IBSA IDRC IEP IGCCC INC IRP LDCs MENA NAPA NCCRS NDP NDRC Advancing Capacity to Support Climate Change Adaptation Applied Centre for Climate and Earth Systems Science Ministers of the Environment Committee Association for Water and Rural Development China and South-South Scoping Assessment for Learning and Development Convention of Biodiversity Climate Change Adaptation in Africa Clean Development Mechanism Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa Certified Emission Reduction Climate Journalists Network Conference of Parties Climate Systems Analysis Group at the University of Cape Town Development bank of South Africa Department of Water Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism UK Department for International Development Department of Minerals and Energy Department of Energy Department of Science and Technology Department of Water and Forestry Environment et Development du Tiers-Monde Endangered Wildlife Trust Food and Agriculture Organization Free Basic Electricity Global Change and Sustainability Centre Gross Domestic Product Green House Gas India, Brazil and South Africa International Development Research Centre Integrated Energy Plan Intergovernmental Committee on Climate Change Initial National Communication Integrated Resource Plan for Electricity Generation Least Developed Countries Middle East and North Africa National Adaptation Plan of Action National Climate Change Response Strategy National Development Plan National Development and Reform Commission South Africa Country Scoping Report v NERSA NGO NPC NWRS-2 PAR PES SADC SIDS SNC START UEMP UNFCCC UNITAR WESSA WDM WWF National Energy Regulator of South Africa Non-Governmental Organisation National Planning Commission National Water Resource Strategy 2 Participatory Action Research Payment for Ecosystem Services South African Development Community Small Island Developing States Second National Communication Systems for Analysis Research and Training Urban Environmental Management Programme United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change United Nations Institute for Training and Research Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa Water Demand Management World Wide Fund South Africa Country Scoping Report vi 1. Introduction Climate change is a global problem with the need for collective action. Whilst the global element to action has traditionally been seen as emissions targets and mitigation ambition, how each country adapts to the impacts of climate change is also a trans-boundary issue. When done well, successfully replicating and learning from other’s adaptation experience can rapidly accelerate a country’s capacity to effectively adapt. Conversely, maladaptation poses the risk of aggravating tensions around resources and borders and can undermine a country’s mitigation efforts. For this reason, adaptation cannot remain a national issue and can be greatly enhanced by international sharing, particularly between developing countries who share similar challenges and contexts. China has an important role to play in global development, climate resilience and South-South cooperation. Numerous Chinese ministries are working with developing countries on climate compatible development through adaptation strategies, science and technological advances across a range of sectors. The 12th Five-Year Plan includes provisions to assist other developing countries even further to address climate change. At the 17th Conference of Parties (COP 17), on 5 December 2011, Xie Zhenhua, National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) Vice Minister and head of the Chinese delegation, announced 4 major areas of investment through South-South collaboration: Adaptation in vulnerable developing; Promotion of climate change adaptation technology; Dissemination and donation of technology to Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and Least Developed Countries (LDCs); and Capacity building programs for developing countries. The project ‘China and South-South Scoping Assessment for Learning and Development’ (CASSALD) is a scoping study on climate adaptation needs, good practice and potential for collaboration in 10 priority developing countries. The aim of the project is to identify key opportunities and avenues for South-South learning on climate change adaptation and how to best channel resources to share China's and developing countries' experiences of integrating climate adaptation into the development process. South Africa can be characterised as a middle-income developing country. The country’s economy has historically been built on its wealth of mineral resources and its primary sectors, however, the share of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) made up by the tertiary sectors is increasing. South Africa gained democracy in 1994 from the Apartheid regime and since then South African national policy has strived to address the legacy of Apartheid by dealing with issues such as high levels of poverty, social inequity, high unemployment rates and associated social ills. While progress has been made in this regard, significant development challenges remain. South Africa is polarised between the rich and the poor with 50 million people living in poverty and a Gini coefficient that is between 0.66 and 0.69. These disparities, together with a high unemployment rate, are reflected in rural–urban migration trends, with negative consequences for human quality of life indicators and exposure to environmental risks in informal settlements. Health and education indices also emphasise these disparities, which are contributing factors to severe skills shortages in several sectors (DEA, 2011). The report starts by mapping out the project context and also gives a brief introduction about South Africa in chapter one. Chapter two formulates a framework for assessment briefly presenting national adaptation strategies and national development plans and highlighting key points. Chapter South Africa Country Scoping Report 1 two also identifies the main actors and sectors that have been identified and prioritised. An assessment of adaptation plans and policies is done to determine comprehensiveness, coordination and priorities. Chapter three is comprised of a needs assessment where the impacts being experienced, predicted and prioritised are highlighted and discussed. Sector priorities are identified together with gaps and areas where the country needs external input highlighting how and where South Africa would benefit from Chinese engagement on climate change adaptation. In chapter four an assessment of attitude is done with regards to politics, policy makers, political drivers and perceptions of working with China. An evaluation of existing links is done in chapter five, recommendations in chapter six and a conclusion in chapter seven. South Africa Country Scoping Report 2 2. Framework for Assessment 2.1. Current National Strategies and Plans 2.1.1. National Development Strategy The National Planning Commission (NPC), comprising of 26 people appointed by the President to give advice on issues impacting on South Africa’s long-term development was commissioned to come up with the National Development Plan (NDP). The NDP seeks to eliminate poverty and reduce inequality. The plan envisions a country where all citizens have the capabilities to participate in the ever-broadening opportunities available. The plan seeks to change the life chances of millions of people, particularly the youth in a bid to redress the inequalities caused by the apartheid history. The plan highlights the fact that people and the country as a whole are capable of creating opportunities for themselves and contributing towards developing the country’s economy. The key demographic observations that inform the NDP include the fact that the proportion of South Africans living in rural areas has fallen by about 10% since 1994. Currently approximately 60% of the total population lives in urban areas and slightly more than half of the poor live in cities. By 2030, about 70 % of the total population is likely to be living in urban areas. Cape Town, Gauteng and eThekwini are the fastest growing city-regions, with planning implications and the need for basic service delivery (NPC, 2011). Immigration will add between 0.1 and 0.2 % to South Africa's population growth each year. HIV/AIDS has affected the population structure, raising overall deaths significantly since 2000. However the HIV infection rate has stabilised at about 10 % and new infections among young people (aged 15-24) have fallen, due to improved treatment resulting in the reduction of the death rate and an increase life expectancy. There is a high unemployment rate. All these factors are taken into consideration in the NDP (NPC, 2011). South Africa has made remarkable progress since the beginning of democracy yet the population remains polarised. A large part of the population continues to live in poverty and much still needs to be done to address the issues caused by apartheid. The NDP advocates for a new development approach in order to eliminate poverty and reduce inequality and this involves a shift from passive citizenry to participatory citizenry (socially and economically inclusive). This can be achieved through active efforts and participation, redressing past injustices effectively, fostering economic growth and higher investment and employment, raising standards of education, strengthening links between economic and social strategies, effective governance, strong leadership throughout society, national consensus and social cohesion (NPC, 2011). The NPC uses a poverty line of about R418 (2009 prices) per person per month. The goal is to reduce the number of people who fall below that line from 39% in 2009 to zero. Poverty is seen as a multidimensional concept, incorporating more than just income. To reduce inequality the NDP suggests that the Gini co-efficient must fall from the current 0.7 to 0.6 by the year 2030 (NPC, 2011). The NDP anticipates that in the next two decades the poor should have the environment, services and skills to improve their lives. This will be enabled by the government as they have the duty to create the conditions and environment for higher levels of public and private investment to create jobs and ensure rising incomes (NPC, 2011). The NDP proposes investment in infrastructure, more innovation, private investment and entrepreneurialism as ways to expand economic opportunities. South Africa Country Scoping Report 3 The NDP points out that the old model of consumption is unsustainable and that progressive taxation, readiness measures, higher savings and greater inclusivity are required to develop a prosperous, united country for all South Africans. The plan seeks to develop people’s capabilities through education and skills development, health care, better access to public transport, jobs, social protection, rising incomes, housing and basic services and safe communities. The NDP recognises the need to engage with the impact of gender on people's life choices and opportunities. The plan states that 'factors that determine the life chances of women are generally worse than for men, and they are also affected by race, geographic location, age and class’ (NDP,2011). In order to achieve this inclusive economic growth and higher levels of investment are needed. To foster sustainable and inclusive development, the following goals have been proposed in the NDP: Creating jobs and livelihoods Expanding infrastructure Transitioning to a low carbon economy Improving education and training Providing quality health care Building a capable state Fighting corruption and enhancing accountability Transforming society and uniting the nation The NDP considers external drivers of change and the impacts that they are likely to have on South Africa’s development. These include the emergence of fast growing and developing economies such as China and India where urbanisation and industrialisation is likely to keep demand for natural resources relatively high for a decade or more. This will broaden opportunities for all economies, including South Africa but there is need for caution as emerging powers may seek to exploit South Africa's vulnerabilities (NPC, 2011). Strong growth in Africa has opened up major opportunities for South African firms and industries, which have contributed to development by investing in telecommunications, banking, mining, construction and retail. South African firms need to overcome structural weakness in order to increase benefits from and contributions to growth and development in Africa. Among these weaknesses are poor transport links and infrastructure networks, tariff and non-tariff barriers, a raising cost of doing business and managing both investment and internal trade. At the same time South Africa needs to formulate ties with countries from whose resources they can benefit. For example South Africa is a water scarce country and a number of neighbouring countries have an abundant supply, hence South Africa should invest and help exploit the wide range of opportunities for low-carbon energy from hydroelectric and other natural sources in Southern Africa (NPC, 2011). The impacts of climate change on South Africa need to be addressed in order for the country to move forward and develop in a sustainable manner. South Africa faces challenges as a result of the impacts of climate change such as rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns that will have consequences for food production and water supply. In a bid to adapt to climate change, the NDP maintains that industries and households have to reduce their negative impact on the environment. The NDP maintains that fundamental changes need to occur in the way people live and work. To facilitate a transition towards a low carbon economy the NDP identified the need to support a South Africa Country Scoping Report 4 carbon budgeting approach, develop solar water heaters, promote energy efficient building standards and simplify the regulatory regime to encourage renewable energy. The NDP advocates for an inclusive and integrated economy through improving the quality of education, training and innovation. The NDP proposes that by 2030 South Africa needs an education system that is of high quality, globally competitive, equips people with skills and fosters innovation. Other supportive initiatives highlighted to support the improvement of education training and innovation include ensuring that children under the age of 3 have a proper diet, focusing on research and development, improvement to the management of the education system and the function and capacity of school principals. Teachers are set to receive appropriate training, remuneration, incentives to perform at a certain required level (NPC, 2011). South Africa has benefited from technological advancement and will continue to do so in the future however there are concerns about the high domestic cost of broadband internet connectivity. The NDP maintains that everyone should benefit from important breakthroughs in science and technology and at the same time South Africa should contribute to global scientific and technological advancement (NDP, 2011). The NDP advocates for an economy that will create more jobs and serve the needs of all South Africans. Proposals in this regard include action to achieve full employment by 2030, equip people with the skills they need, ensure that ownership of production is less concentrated and more diverse (where black people and women own a significant share of productive assets) and achieve rapid growth as well as provide resources to pay for investment in human and physical capital (NPC, 2011). The Government's New Growth Path aims to create 5 million jobs by 2020 by providing a supporting environment for growth and development, while promoting a more labour absorptive economy. The Government's New Growth Path seeks to lower the cost of living for poor households and for businesses through targeted microeconomic reforms, especially in transport, public services, telecommunications and food. In order to increase employment and growth the NDP identifies the following actions as necessary: raising exports, increasing innovations, improving the labour market, support for small business, increasing investment, reducing regulations and improving capacity. The National Development Plan recognises that sustainable growth and development will require higher savings, investment and export growth. Efforts should focus on growing exports and building the linkages between export earnings and job creation, which often occur in domestically focused small and medium sized firms and most often in the services sector. According to the National Development Plan South Africa has to exploit its existing strengths to increase exports by making use of its advantages such as skills, technologies, firms, minerals wealth, underutilised labour and geography. Considering that in the short term, the world economy is expected to grow at a relatively slow pace, the National Development Plan proposes that South Africa needs to be strategic about what is produced in the country, for which markets and using what capabilities. South Africa is well endowed with mineral resources but over the past decade the mining sector has failed to match the global growth trends in mineral export due to poor infrastructure and regulatory and policy frameworks that hamper investment. The NDP notes that South Africa can benefit greatly from Asia's growing demand for commodities. In order to do so improvements need to be made in water, transport and energy infrastructure and in providing greater policy and regulatory certainty for investors. South Africa Country Scoping Report 5 The NDP advocates for improvement in infrastructure in order for South Africa to grow faster and in a more inclusive manner. According to the planning commission, in the long term users must pay the bulk of the costs with due protection for the poor households. The role of the government is to provide the required guarantees so that the costs can be repaid over time (NPC, 2011). Key to improving infrastructure is upgrading informal settlements, transport, water schemes and improving energy production structures. The NDP advocates for quality health care for all by 2030. Healthcare should focus on prevention, education, disease management and treatment. A programme to evaluate health management is currently in its pilot phase as part of the national health insurance. But in order to improve the health care system as a whole it is necessary to improve the quality of public health care, lower the relative cost of private care, and recruit more professionals in both public and private sectors. The NDP’s vision for social security is that by 2030 South Africa will have a comprehensive system of social protection that includes social grants, mandatory retirement savings, risk benefits such as unemployment, death and disability benefits and voluntary retirement savings. A social wage has been proposed which includes no-fee schools, free basic services and subsidised public transport. The NDP also advocates for building safe communities and fighting corruption with a combination of deterrence, prevention and education strategies. 2.1.2. Climate Change Adaptation Strategies The South African government recognises the need to make a transition to a climate-resilient and low carbon economy and society (DEA, 2011). The South African Constitution plays a critical role in informing environmental governance by establishing a right to an environment that is not harmful to health and well-being, balancing environmental protection rights with social and economic development and assigning environmental functions to various government agencies and requiring cooperation between them. A number of plans, policies and legislation have been developed over the years addressing climate change issues. South Africa prepared its Initial National Communication in accordance with Article 12 of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 2004. In 2011 South Africa’s Second National Communication (SNC) was prepared in accordance with the UNFCCC SNC guidelines for developing countries on reporting national circumstances and producing a national greenhouse gas (GHG) inventory for the year 2000. To implement the convention one of the steps laid out in the SNC is balancing mitigation and adaptation response. To achieve a pro-growth, pro-development and pro-jobs strategy the SNC highlights the need to redefine competitive advantage and facilitate structural transformation of the economy by shifting from an energy intensive to a climate friendly path. This strategy would be supported by a solid knowledge base and capacity to adapt to the inevitable impacts of climate change through information and technology transfer (early warning systems and reduction systems); systematic observation; monitoring and research; public awareness; and, training and capacity building. The SNC also points out the constraints, gaps, and relevant financial, technical and capacity needs. The NDP also recognises and incorporates the impacts of climate change on development. The NDP highlights there need to address climate change impacts in order to move forward and develop in a sustainable manner. The NDP maintains that industries and households must reduce negative South Africa Country Scoping Report 6 impacts on the environment and fundamental changes need to occur in the way people live and work (Department of the Presidency, 2011). In 2011 the National Climate Change Response White Paper was developed. It is a national level policy framework for climate change adaptation and mitigation demonstrating the government’s vision for effectively responding to climate change and transitioning to a climate-resilient and lower –carbon economy. The National Climate Change Response White Paper uses a risk-based process to identify and prioritise short and medium term adaptation interventions to be addressed in sector plans. The process identified adaptation responses that require coordination between sectors and departments that will be reviewed every few given years. The National Climate Change Response White Paper promotes and strengthens integration between different sectors and government departments in order to maximise the benefits to the country (Odeku & Meyer, 2010). A combination of resilience to climate variability and climate related extreme weather events forms the basis for South Africa’s future approach to climate disaster management and a region-wide approach will be used where appropriate. One of the objectives presented is to effectively manage climate change impacts through interventions that build and sustain South Africa’s social, economic and environmental resilience and emergency response capacity. The second objective is to make a fair contribution to the global effort to stabilise GHG concentrations in the atmosphere to avoid dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system while enabling economic, social and environmental development to proceed in a sustainable manner. The National Climate Change Response Strategy highlights the fact that effective planning and coordination of an integrated adaptation response requires early warning and forecasting for disaster risk reduction, medium-term (decade-scale) climate forecasting to identify potential resource challenges well in advance and long-term climate projections that define the range of future climate conditions. These need to be reinforced by research and capacity and technological development. They need to respond to the needs of disaster risk reduction in the short-term, and integrated resource and development planning in the medium- and long-term. Adaptation strategies have been proposed per sector. In the health sector one of the main concerns is the increase in malaria and schistosomiasis. Strategies to address this problem include factoring climate change impacts into the existing disease monitoring and forecasting, increasing the use of bed nets and other personal protection measures, extending prevention measures and strengthening access to water and sanitation to reduce exposure to water borne diseases. In the water sector strategies include flexibility in water use, water demand management, water conservation measures, harvesting rain, raising awareness, optimising the use of existing infrastructure and enhancing cooperation at a river basin level. In the agricultural and rangelands sector some of the identified strategies include alternative land-use and decreased dependency on ranching, the use of land-use planning to identify trends and advantages, planting drought resistant crops or switching production to livestock or game ranching, conservation farming and water harvesting, irrigation, the use of agricultural management practices, establishment of seed banks and development of more and better drought resistant crops. Under biodiversity and ecosystems identified strategies include: a biodiversity monitoring network; extension of protected areas; changes in forestry practices; genetic engineering to develop heat and drought resistant hybrids of tree species; promoting plant diversity through ex-situ conservation and seed banks; and, implementing conservation area networks to buffer effects of climate change in both terrestrial and marine biodiversity (DEA, 2011). South Africa Country Scoping Report 7 2.2. Main Actors and their Roles and Responsibilities 2.2.1. Government Environmental governance is complex in South Africa. National, provincial and local governments have a mandate to co-ordinate and co-operate in the implementation of climate change adaptation interventions as well as facilitate implementation and policies where necessary. Capacity is stronger at the national government level compared to the provincial and local level. The National Climate Change Committee under the Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) forms the main body responsible for developing climate change policy. The DEA plays the role of a coordinator in implementing climate change responses at the national level. The departments of Water Affairs, Agriculture and Fisheries, Minerals, Energy and Science and Technology also play critical role in climate change affairs. It should be noted that government departments are constantly restructuring and sometimes merging together if they are related. The South African government has put some initiatives into place that will also contribute towards education and awareness-raising around issues related to climate change. A science plan and an institutional architecture have been developed by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) to respond to global change (including climate change) over the next ten years. The plan seeks to focus on research within the 'science-policy practice' interface, focusing on the practical application of knowledge. The Applied Centre for Climate and Earth Systems Science (ACCESS) and the proposed Global Change and Sustainability Centre (GCSC) will consider mechanisms, processes and institutions (and combinations of all three) that translate the output of global change research into material that can support policy and decision making. Recently a Risk and Vulnerability Atlas was created and distributed to local governments throughout the country. In terms of poverty alleviation the NDP states that the government has a duty to create conditions and an environment for higher levels of public and private investment to create jobs and ensure rising incomes. A number of government departments are involved and support climate change. 2.2.2. Civil society A combination of Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and other organisations and networks play a critical role in advancing climate change adaptation. These can be national, local and international. A number of organisations and networks have contributed to climate change adaptation initiatives as well as awareness-raising and education these include: Conservation South Africa South African Adaptation Network Wildlife and Environmental Management Group Resource Africa, South African Climate Action Network Birdlife South Africa Botanical Society of South Africa Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) Wilderness Foundation, Wildlands Conservation Trust Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA) South Africa Country Scoping Report 8 Greenpeace South Africa OXFAM World Wide Fund for Nature South Africa (WWF) Norwegian Church Aid Action Aid Abahlali baseMjondolo Alternative Information Development Centre Association for Water and Rural Development (AWARD) Climate Change Adaptation in Africa Earthlife Africa EcoHope Environmental Monitoring Group GenderCC Green Connection The Green Network Geasphere, Earth Matters Groundwork Indaloyethu Indigo Development and Change Project 90x2030 SACAN – NGO coordinated by Sandile Ndawonde, Green Network Slum Dwellers International COPART South African Faith Communities Environment Institute South Durban Community Environmental Alliance Table Mountain Fund Timberwatch Urban Environmental Management Programme NGOs are involved in climate change research, raising awareness, capacity building, advocacy and lobbying. These organisations play a critical role in informing the public about climate change and appropriate individual responses. These organisations are also involved in a number projects within and outside South Africa, all dealing with the issues of climate change. 2.2.3. Private sector The private sector can play a pivotal role in contributing towards investment in the economy as well as climate change initiatives. The success of the development plan depends on investment, particularly local investment, incentivizing savings and enabling firms and individuals to take a longer-term perspective of economic opportunity. The state alone does not have enough funds to be able to adequately address climate change issues. The private sector can also partner with the government in identified climate change adaptation initiatives. The private sectors forms part of an institutional structure made up of the government, the academics and civil society (DEA, 2011). Companies, particularly in the energy- and carbon intensive sectors, have been actively engaged in developing a good understanding of the relative contributions of sectors and companies to both South Africa Country Scoping Report 9 direct and indirect GHG emissions through data gathering initiatives and the identification of potential mitigation activities. GHG emissions data continue to be provided to government on a voluntary basis. These efforts have now been extended to ensure that all emissions from the industrial processes and product use sectors are identified. The development of a more accurate emissions profile for this sector would facilitate the identification of a more comprehensive set of mitigation actions. The private sector must play a participatory role particularly on issues related to GHG emissions. There is carbon footprint guidance for smaller non-listed companies to help them refine their collection of data and improve the quality of data. The private sector has collaborated with government in the development of a measurement, reporting and verification standard for energy efficiency savings and is currently working on the accompanying accreditation standard for measurement and verification agencies (DEA, 2011). Businesses such as Woolworths are taking progressive holistic actions such as engaging in sustainable practices to producing goods. This has been done in the ‘farming for the future’ programme involving holistic farming process that involves maintaining the soil, reduction in the use of chemical use, 2.2.4. Academia South Africa’s isolation from international events during the apartheid years contributed to the country’s delayed action on climate change issues. South Africa has only recently gained momentum on this front when compared to other countries (DEAT, 2004). As a result education, training and public awareness on climate change issues lag behind the required standards (DEAT, 2004). The Government lacks capacity necessary to deal with climate change on an effective basis and while industry may be better prepared with regards to technical skills, they are not always necessarily well suited to climate change related activities (DEA, 2011). The South African school curriculum does not currently offer climate change education, although there is room for inclusion in the natural sciences and social sciences subjects at grades 0-9. There are inequalities that exist between schools with regard to the capacity of teaching staff and resource availability. Thus while many of the better-funded schools are able to teach aspects of climate change, this is not the case in the majority of schools. A wide variety of training in climate change is offered in South Africa's tertiary education institutions. A number of research groups have been set up at tertiary institutions researching various climate-change related issues combining human dimension interests and expertise. Climate specific degree courses are currently being planned so that in the near future South African universities will be offering climate change led degrees as well as addressing climate training needs through specific disciplines. International organisations have also played a significant role in education on climate change, particularly the global System for Analysis, Research and Training (START). 2.2.5. Development Partners Development partners in South Africa are most commonly found in the form of NGOs. They are mostly funded organisations working on specific issues. Following identified priority areas, development partners can partner with the governments of other development agencies in climate change adaptation projects. Development partners tend to work in other countries, allowing them to act as a good source of learning from other countries or projects that have been done in the past (DEA, 2011). South Africa Country Scoping Report 10 2.3. Review of Adaptation Plans and Progress 2.3.1. Mainstreaming of climate adaptation The Department of Environmental Affairs is the designated lead agency for climate change response in South Africa (DEAT, 2004). It has been recognised that climate change impacts cut across sectors hence the need for effective coordination among government departments to ensure that the response is carried out properly, in an acceptable manner with a national focus (DEAT, 2004). The government recognises the need to build capacity across departments to aid climate change adaptation and prepare for likely impacts. In its development, the National Climate Change Response Strategy (2004) was guided by some of the principles from the National Environmental Management Act of 1998 (DEAT, 2004). The National Adaptation Response Strategy and Adaptation Flagship Programs set the tone for the provincial strategies that follow and the capacity building of provincial and local government needs to enable the integration of climate change adaptation into local development plans. Disaster risk management plans developed at municipality level need to be integrated with other sector plans. Various resource users and interest groups need to participate in the development of climate change adaptation strategies. The approach of mainstreaming climate change adaptation into development will make room for engagement and collective solution-seeking compared to one that, based on climate change modelling exercises tends to alienate ordinary citizens and policy makers. A proactive approach would make use of information on South African dynamics and incorporate them into policy interventions (Madzwamuse, 2010). The primary reason for the difficulty experienced with mainstreaming climate change into various sectors and government departments is the lack of recognition on the part of many officials that climate change is a priority. Some perceive that a climate change led development strategy works against national development strategies and policies. One of the key concerns in South Africa concerning development is significant backlog of service delivery. Due to the fact that government department’s performance is measured by how effective and efficient it is on service delivery, climate change issues tend to be seen as a hindrance to the country’s development priorities (DEAT, 2004). In order to overcome this climate change needs to be addressed in a way that helps departments to achieve their service delivery objectives through ‘win-win’ or ‘no-regrets’ measures. Another challenge is that there is a range of definitions that exist regarding what successful mainstreaming is and the policy environment into which integration is set to occur is fragmented (Giordano, Hall, Gilder and Parramon, 2011). To ensure that appropriate adaptation responses are mainstreamed into sector plans, a subcommittee of the Intergovernmental Committee on Climate Change (IGCCC) will be established to perform climate risk analyses on all sector plans, informed by the various sector adaptation responses. The analysis will identify and prioritise key short- and medium-term adaptation interventions that must be addressed in sector plans as well as adaptation responses that require coordination between specific sectors and/or departments. Using results from the analysis adaptation strategies will be integrated into the following sector plans and the implementation and accurate responses need to be defined: South Africa Country Scoping Report 11 2.3.2. The National Water Resource Strategy, as well as reconciliation strategies for particular catchments and water supply systems. The Strategic Plan for South African Agriculture. The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, as well as provincial biodiversity sector plans and local bioregional plans. The Department of Health Strategic Plan. The Comprehensive Plan for the Development of Sustainable Human Settlements. National Framework for Disaster Risk Management Comprehensiveness Up until recently each sector has been developing its own adaptation plans and actions. Sectors receive varying climate information from climatologists, partly due to the different climate models used and the inherent unpredictable nature of climate. Hence there is need for a strategic approach to be used by climatologists in providing information. A lot of research needs to be done in order to achieve a real sense and understanding of the long-term climate change risks (what will be happening in 50 years or so) (Guy Midgley, 2012). The South African adaptation policy framework should be streamlined so that economic and development planning structures at local and government levels are supported with capacity, resources and understanding during implementation. There is need to align adaptation responses with long-term policies that address the underlying issues of poverty and vulnerability such as the land reform process and the review of the impacts of macro-economic policies on the poor (Madzwamuse, 2010). An example of comprehensive information is South Africa’s Disaster Management Act which sets out a comprehensive approach to disaster management and identifies the roles and responsibilities of key institutions and disaster management agencies. In addition, the Act establishes a National Disaster Management Centre whose role is to address disaster prevention, coordinate disaster management agencies and capacity across government and to ensure that critical information is disseminated in a timely manner (DEA, 2010). The Adaptation Research Flagship Program led by the South African National Biodiversity Institute seeks to design and implement a national and regional research program to scope sectoral adaptation requirements, costs and identify adaptation strategies with cross-sectoral linkages and benefits. The Flagship program is also set to do an assessment of climate change vulnerabilities in the sub-region, with a detailed scenario planning process to define potential sub-regional response strategies with a long-term projection. The Adaptation Flagship program addresses 8 key sectors: Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Human Health, Water, Human Settlements (urban, rural, and coastal), Ecosystems and Biodiversity and Disaster Risk Reduction and Management. The adaptation flagship program is set to produce a coherent view of climate change vulnerabilities in South Africa, develop a set of products to inform and guide adaptation options, and develop an effective network of adaptation research, practitioner and management stakeholders as well as a solid knowledge base (DEA, 2012). There is growing support for the use of ecosystems- based adaptation approaches in collaboration with communities and various sectors so as to integrate ecosystems- based adaptation into various South Africa Country Scoping Report 12 sectors and create comprehensive strategies. The use of community based- ecosystems approach formulates a solid basis to develop a green economy, low carbon development and promote sustainable livelihoods, particularly for the poor. There is growing consensus that the ecosystemsbased approach to adaptation can be used to produce comprehensive and effective adaptation strategies (Madzwamuse, 2010). 2.3.3. Implementation South Africa has a comprehensive policy that addresses climate change mitigation and adaptation. Currently, implementation of climate change adaptation in municipal and rural settlement areas is face distinct challenges including a shortage in capacity. To set plans into motion requires more stakeholder engagement as well as social-learning and careful investigation of science-policy practice (DEA, 2011). Although adaptation activities are already underway in larger municipalities, a mitigation-based approach is mainly being used at the moment. There is a need for research on implementation as well as advocacy on improved climate risk management at all decision making levels. Investment in science and technology will provide the necessary tools and data for municipalities and rural settlements to be able to act on adaptation planning (DEA, 2011). The role and responsibilities of a functioning ecosystem need to be considered. There is a need for investment in order to build implementation policy and capacity at the local level with priority given to provinces and local government areas that are most vulnerable and have little adaptive capacity. Although there is a Disaster Management Act and various disaster management programmes in the country, there is evidence that in some parts of the country implementation and uptake of early warming information can be slow (DEA, 2011). 2.3.4. Mitigation in relation to Adaptation The South African economy is energy intensive and relies heavily on coal. To achieve successful mitigation, South Africa should focus on the energy sector and implementation of energy efficient measures, renewable forms of energy and nuclear energy. The mining and energy sectors are subject to mitigation measures, however, climate change impacts are likely to occur even if carbon emissions are reduced. Therefore, it is necessary to combine mitigation and adaptation strategies particularly in the mining, industry and energy sector (Odeku & Meyer, 2010). Other areas where a combination of mitigation and adaptation approaches can be used include landuse, sustainable agriculture, reforestation, restoration of grasslands and thicket, storage of carbon and restoration of ecosystems services. The Integrated Energy Plan (IEP) and the Integrated Resource Plan for Electricity Generation (IRP) are examples of integrated plans that bring together mitigation and adaptation strategies. This is because while the energy, industry and mining sector are the highest carbon emitters, efforts need to be made to harness the abundant renewable energy options in order find alternative ways of producing energy in South Africa. Both policies seek to diversify energy production, implement efficient energy measures, invest and develop new and cleaner technologies and industries as well as initiate the transition to a low-carbon economy (DEA, 2010). The energy sector presents opportunities for adaptation and mitigation, particularly in managing the risk enhanced by the emissions of greenhouse gasses. The fact that there is only partial knowledge of future climate risks is a challenge further necessitating implementation of strict policies and strategies to reduce GHG South Africa Country Scoping Report 13 emissions. The goal is for carbon dioxide emissions to stop growing by 2020-2025, stabilize for ten years, and then decline (Odeku & Meyer, 2010). South Africa Country Scoping Report 14 National Adaptation Projects Within South Africa Project Objectives Funder Municipal Climate Protection Programme Stakeholder’s engagement to inform and promote climate change communitybased adaptation for the city of Johannesburg Managing Escalating Wildfires Implementing Agency eThekwini Municipality Type of Project Linda Phalatse from the City of Johannesburg, supervised by Coleen Vogel from Witwatersrand Assessment of local climate change impacts, development of an adaptation work stream, development of urban management interventions and mainstreaming climate change concerns into city planning and development To provide insight on how to situate vulnerability, disaster risk and climate change adaptation efforts within the city’s communities eThekwini Municipality and various external donors Integrated Fire Management to ensure Pro-active Fire-fighting Special Climate Working on Fire Change Fund (GEF) START (Systems for Analysis, Research and Training) Implementation Period Long-term Priority Sector Climate Change Adaptation Policy 6-8 months Water, local and city wide planning and budgeting Johannesburg Coordination 3 years 6 months Agriculture, coast, forestry, water (fire protection areas within the Cape Western Cape, parts of the Southern Cape including Baviaanskloof and Tsitsikamma Municipality (Local Government) led Initiative South Africa Country Scoping Report Landuse Geographic Focus eThekwini 15 Fish Water/Marine Modelling Legislation Local Authority Partnership Risk Assessment Investigate and understand the potential combined effects of coastal storm surges, mean sea level rise and increased fresh water and storm water flow. Development of legislation that will allow faster and more directed action not slowed down by bureaucratic means Identify where assistance by national government is needed, is there need for a shift in national policy, can a change in national frameworks or funding mechanisms enhance adaption or resilience at local level Outline the City of Cape Town’s Danida (Danish Government Development Funding) City of Cape Town, University of Cape Town (Climate Systems Analysis Group) PDRW Technical advice Natural Resource Management Assessment Report Communication Coordination 1 year Floristic Region Coastal area Danida City of Cape Town, University of Cape Town, University of the Western Cape and EnACT Regulation/Law 1year Coastal Areas Cape Town Danida City of Cape Town, ICLEI (Local Governments for sustainability), African Centre for Cities and eThekwini Municipality Communication, Regulation, Natural Resource Management and Assessment Report 1 year Coastal Areas Coastal Cities in South Africa Danida City of Cape Town, Golder Assessment Report, Regulation, Natural 1 year Coast City of Cape Town South Africa Country Scoping Report Coast (City of Cape Town) 16 (Climate Adaptation Plan of Action) DBSA LEDI Sustainable Communities Managing the risk associated with flooding and sea level rise in the city of Cape Town Coastal Climate Change and Adaptation-A sea-level rise risk assessment for Cape Town Decision support in the context of climate change Climate, water approach to dealing with its vulnerability to Climate Change To assist the municipality in supporting climate resilient socioeconomic development. To establish a collaborative governance system required for better decision making processes in the face of climate change risk in the City of Cape Town. Assess sea-level rise risk, identify and prioritise risk reduction options To provide a framework for consistent legally defensible decisions that reduce risk of climate change for the City of Cape Town To develop multiple Associates Resource Management, Communication Assessment Report DBSA (Development Bank of South Africa) Theewaterskloof Municipality Climate Change Adaptation in Africa (CCAA) programme funded by IDCRC and DFID University of Cape Town, Stockholm Environmental Institute, City of Cape Town, Shack Dwellers International Assessment Report, Collaborative Learning Process 3 years Disaster Management, Informal settlements City of Cape Town Urban environmental management programme (UEMP) City of Cape Town, LaQuar and Econologic Assessment Report 2 years Sea Level Rise City of Cape Town Danida Econologic Technical Advice 1 year Policy Making City of Cape Town GEF World Centre for Natural Resource 3 years Water and Burkina Faso, South Africa Country Scoping Report 3 years Theewaterskloof 17 and agriculture: Impacts and adaptation of agro-ecological systems in Africa Managing climate risk for agriculture and water resources development in South Africa analytical methods Bank and procedures to assess quantitatively the current and future effects of climate on agricultural systems in Africa, predict how they may be affected in the future by climate change under various global warming scenarios and suggest role of adaptation To address two IDRC Canada, problems DFID (dissemination of climate information and shortage of integrated approaches for evaluating and making adaptation decisions)associated with adaptation to climate change in the water resources of African countries Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa (CEEPA)University of Pretoria Management, Communication and Coordination University of Free State, University of Cape Town, University of Kwazulu-Natal, IRI (USA), UNEPRiscoe (Denmark) Farm model information gathering, communication of climate change information, technical advice and training South Africa Country Scoping Report 3 years Agriculture Cameroon, Ghana, Niger and Senegal, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe Agriculture and industry Berg and Breede River catchment areas in SW Cape Province of South Africa 18 Using enhanced knowledge of climate variability for the benefit of water resource management To improve the uptake of climate information by water resources managers in the Western Cape, South Africa Water Research Commission Advancing Capacity to support climate changer adaptation (ACCCA): Five Pilot Projects To reduce the vulnerability if poor populations in subSaharan Africa to climate change by mobilising scientists and all the other actors concerned to formal political decision-making IDRC Climate Systems analysis group, University of Cape Town UNITAR (United Nations Institute for Training and Research),ENDATM (Environment et Development du Tiers-Monde), SEI Oxford Office, CSAGUCT (Climate Systems Analysis Group at the University of Cape Town) ,START (Global Change System for Analysis Research & Training),START SE ASIA Regional Centre START Temperate East Asia Regional Centre Natural Resource Management, Communication and Coordination 3 years Water resources Local, Regional and National Communication and Training 3years Policy Decision making Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, South Africa, Burkina Faso South Africa Country Scoping Report 19 Sub-Saharan African Cities: A five city Network to pioneer climate Adaptation through participatory research and local action Community Based Adaptation in Africa-The South African component Climate Change Adaptation in the Swartland Mechal To address the knowledge, resource, capacity and networking gaps of five Southern African cities by strengthening their ability to plan for, and adapt to, the impacts associated with climate change To develop a robust methodology on community based climate adaptation processes including monitoring and evaluation systems for adaptation, policy strengthening To increase resilience of small scale farmers in the Swartland to climate change IDRC, DFID ICLEI and UNHABITAT Assessment Report, Natural Resource Management, Technical Advice 3 years Water, Sanitation, Energy, Transport, Health and livelihoods Cape Town, Dar es Salaam, Maputo, Walvis Bay and Port St Louis CCAA (DFID/IDRC) Indigo Development and change, Associate Adele Arendse Natural Resource Management, Communication, Coordination, Technical Advice, Training 3 years Small Scale Farmers (livestock, rooibos tea) Suid Bokkeveld Climate Change Adaptation in Africa (CCAA), IDRC, DFID Indigo development and change, Environmental Monitoring Group Indigo, University of Hamburg (Germany), CSIRE, UCT,EMG, Natural Resource Management, Communication, Coordination, technical advice and training Natural Resource Management, Communication, Coordination, Technical Advice 1 year Small Scale Farmers (vegetables) Swartlnand, Western Cape 3 years Small Scale Farmers Hantam Municipality, Northern Cape Integrated research CCAA (IDRC approach to develop and DFID), GEF adaptive small grants management strategies by small South Africa Country Scoping Report 20 Scenario planning to assess the implication of climate change on land and water use within the agricultural sector of the garden route, Western Cape Adapting to and reducing the risk of future extreme rainfall on urban flooding Vulnerability, coping and adaptation within the context of climate change and HIV/AIDS in South Africa: scale farmers in semi-arid South Africa and Ethiopia under changing climatic and policy conditions. To identify and promote logical, financially feasible alternative that will encourage wise and sustainable use of land and water resources within the agricultural sector of the Garden Route Shesheme University (Ethiopia) and CIFOR and Training Eden District Municipality, Table Mountain Fund Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa Assessment Report, Natural Resource Management, Communication, Training 18 months Commercial and Large scale farmers (fruit and dairy) Garden Route Western Cape To design a userfriendly climatechange guideline document for municipal decision makers. Water Resource Commission Building/installation structure, Assessment Report, Communication, Coordination and Technical Advice 3 years Water Ekurhuleni Municipality Assessment of multiple stressors, particularly health and environmental issues, how they are impacted by climate change so as to implements International Development Research Centre (IDRC) ReVAMP, The School of Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, Wits University Department of Environmental Science Rhodes University and University of Alberta (Canada) Natural Resource Management, Communication, Coordination, Technical Advice and Training 4 years Community Based Adaptation Eastern Cape South Africa Country Scoping Report 21 Investigating strategies and practices to strengthen livelihoods and food security, improve health and build resilience Stewardship corridors for climate change adaptation appropriate community based adaptation practices through a social learning approach To create ecological corridors by forging partnerships with private and communal landowners, allowing some level of human use, while protecting biodiversity and allowing ecosystems to function. Riparian habitat To develop and rehabilitation implement project strategies to rehabilitate key degraded riparian corridors in the karoo. DG Murray Trust, via the Climate Action Partnership Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife Incentive Structure, Natural Resource Management, Coordination, Technical Advice, Training 3 years Communal, Rural and Private Land Owners CAP, Cape Nature, Department of Environmental Affairs, Altron, Altech, Bytes, Powertech, Alteech Netstar, The Endangered Wildlife Trust (EWT) Incentive Structure, natural Resource Management, Communication, Coordination, Technical Advice and Training Since 2007 Commercial Farmers, Rural Communities South Africa Country Scoping Report Kwazulu Natal (Dalton Private Reserve, Red Desert Nature Reserve, Umgano Community Project, Somkhanda Game Reserve, Usuthu and Upper Thukela community (incorporating Mweni) Northern Cape District Municipality, Ubuntu Local Municipality, Western Cape, Central Karoo District Municipality, 22 Eco Schools Program Biodiversity and red meat initiative To facilitate and empower schools as divers of community action, learning and social change toward reducing and offsetting greenhouse gas emissions A livelihoods program to help poor and vulnerable members in the township and rural communities grow a future for themselves Implementation of conservation stewardship Climate change proofing water services To contribute to the building of communities and Kwazulu Natal forest restoration project MAZDA, National Lottery, SA National Parks, ZGAP, Rand Merchant Bank Wild lands Conservation Trust and the Climate Action Partnership Beaufort West Local Municipality Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa, WWF South Africa Communication, Coordination, Training/Capacity Development 2008-2011 Learners, Educators and the broader community Western Cape, Mpumalanga, Eastern Cape, Free State and KwaZulu- Natal CAP Wildlands Conservation Trust Incentive Structure, Natural Resource Management, Communication, Coordination, Technical Advice and Training On-going Small scale land owners and poor rural communities Jobe, Ongoye, Buffesdraai carbon sinks, KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape Critical Ecosystem Profile Fund, United Way International, Citi Group Heireich Boehl Stiftung Conservation International Incentive Structure, Natural Resource Management, Coordination, Technical Advice, Training Assessment Report, Communication, Coordination, 2009-ongoing Communal and Kamiesberg private land uplands, ownership Northern Cape engaged in stock farming 2007-ongoing Water Management Environmental Monitoring Group South Africa Country Scoping Report City of Cape Town and surroundings 23 Increasing the resilience of small-scale tea farmers in response to climate change Climate Change and water in the Southern Cape=Risk impacts and options for poor urban households Building resilience small government in the larger Cape Town, in order to respond to the impacts of climate change on water, in just developmental ways To provide concrete recommendation and to develop strategies to build resilience to climate change amongst small-scale teas growers, and mainstreaming adaptation to projected increasing climate risk. To contribute to building climate change resilience of poor urban communities by identifying risk, vulnerabilities and knowledge gaps associated with tier access to water under climate change conditions. To assist small-scale farmers and Technical Advice, Training Table Mountain Fund Environmental Monitoring Group, Climate Systems Analysis Group (UCT) Natural Resource Management, Communication, Technical Advice, Training 3 years Small Scale farmers, Arid Areas Suid Bokkeelveld, Hantam District, Northern Cape Open Society Foundation Environmental Monitoring Group Assessment Report, Communication and Training 1 year Water Southern Cape DG Murray Trust Environmental Monitoring Natural Resource Management, 2 years Farmers and Fishers Northern Cape and Southern South Africa Country Scoping Report 24 scale farmers and artisanal fisheries Participatory modelling for assessment of climate change impacts on water resources Global climate change and water resources in Southern Africa: Potential impacts of climate change and mitigation strategies An evaluation of the sensitivity of artisanal fisheries to assist them in understanding climate change and in developing response strategies To increase understanding and produce more relevant information for planning and adaptation to climate variability and change in relation to water resources through a participatory process. Manage water resources progressively as global climate change progresses, in order to maintain optimal level of both resource protection and beneficial use of water for society To increase the ability to respond to change in light of Group Communication, Coordination, Technical Advice and Training South African and Swedish Government University of KwaZulu-Natal, Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (FOUH Research DepartmentHydrology) Assessment Report, Communication and Training 2006-2009 Water Management Upper Thukela Water Research Commission University of KwaZulu-Natal, School of Bioresources Engineering and Environmental Hydrology Assessment Report, Natural Resource Management and Training 2003-2005 Department of Water, Environmental Affairs, Forestry and Agriculture KwaZulu-Natal Midlands Water Research Commission University of KwaZulu-Natal Assessment Report, Natural Resource Management, 2008-2011 Water Management Berg, Breede and Umgeni River Catchment South Africa Country Scoping Report Cape 25 socio-economic activities to climate change in climatically divergent South African catchments Towards defining the WRC research portfolio on climate change for 2008-2013 projected climate change and enhanced climate variability for South Africa Document sets out the background against which the development of a climate change research portfolio with a water-sector focus was initiated and pursued. Developing To develop an water related adaptive integrated climate change management adaptation approach, provide options to updated knowledge, support identify a suitable implementation toolkit and develop of policy and procedures and strategies for methodologies to water growth mainstream climate and change development Sedgefield Develop an Desalination Innovative, demandPlant based approach to address the water supply crisis in Communication and Training Water Research Commission Consultant G.C Green Assessment Report, Technical Advice and 5 year strategic plan on water related research 2008 All Sectors South Africa Water Research Commission University of KwaZulu-Natal, School of Bioresources Engineering and Environmental Hydrology Assessment Report, Natural Resource Management, Communication, Coordination and Training 2010-2013 All sectors South Africa Knysna Municipality and grant funds Knysna Municipality Building/Installation structure 3 months Water Management Sedgefield, Knysna Municipality South Africa Country Scoping Report 26 Sedgefield South Africa Country Scoping Report 27 3. Needs Assessment 3.1. Climate Impacts and Priorities by Sector 3.1.1. Water South Africa is a water scarce country with a highly variable climate and one of the lowest run-offs in the world – a situation that is likely to be significantly exacerbated by the effects of climate change. South Africa shares four of its major river systems with six neighbouring countries. These four shared catchments amount to approximately 60% of South Africa’s surface area and approximately 40% of the average total river flow (DEA, 2011). It has been projected that by 2025. South Africa and a number of African countries will reach even more critical water scarcity levels. Climate change will mostly affect existing water-stressed catchments with complex land uses, water engineered systems, and a strong socio-political as well as economic historical footprint, hence there is a need for an integrated approach to land and water management. The water sector is faced with capacity constraints, inadequate funding, a reliance on an ageing bulk infrastructure, and erratic water quality in smaller municipalities and rural areas (DEA, 2011). Based on current projections, South Africa will exceed the limits of economically viable land-based water resources by 2050. The water sector must balance the allocation of limited water resources amongst major users (agriculture, domestic urban use and industry), whilst addressing the need to ensure fair access to water for all South African people as well as a sufficient ecological allocation to maintain the integrity of ecosystems and the services they provide. Rainfall is expected to become more variable, with an increase in extreme events such as flooding and droughts resulting in a much more unpredictable runoff system. Downscaled climate modelling suggests that the western and interior parts of the country are likely to become drier, and the eastern parts of the country wetter. Increased rainfall intensity will exacerbate scouring in rivers and sedimentation in dams, potentially impacting on water supply and treatment infrastructure. Higher temperatures, combined with higher carbon dioxide levels, will contribute to increased growth of algae as well as faster evaporation rates negatively impacting water resources. With both increased and decreased rainfall projected over different parts of South Africa, water demand management (WDM) is one of the priorities to conserve the country’s water resources. The Department of Water Affairs (DWA) has placed WDM at the top of their agenda and they regard municipalities as the key implementers of WDM and water conservation programs (Van Vuuren 2008). Another priority is developing a National Groundwater Strategy to enable water service providers to ‘diversify the water mix’ by using more groundwater (DWAF 2009). The government has also identified the need to develop the Integrated Water Resource Strategy which will inform the ongoing maintenance of the water balance reconciliation strategies. These strategies have recently been developed for water supply systems for up to 75% of the country’s population, areas which together generate well over 80% of the national GDP. An additional priority is the development of the Water for Growth and Development Framework, a medium to long term strategy planned for the period 2030, which aims to balance the critical role of water in terms of both poverty alleviation (ensuring the constitutional right to a reliable and safe water supply) and economic development (be South Africa Country Scoping Report 28 it for domestic, industry, mining, agricultural or forestry use). Other priorities in the water sector are short-term strategies involving the use of climate change as a vehicle for addressing urgent short comings in the water sector and implementing effective, efficient and sustainable water resources and service management measures. The long-term strategy focuses on planning, adaptation and the smart implementation of new concepts and proactive approaches to managing water resources in South Africa. Recently National Water Resource Strategy 2 ((NWRS-2) was gazetted in August. The NWRS-2 sets out the strategic direction for water resources management in the country over the next 20 years, with a particular focus on priorities and objectives for the period 2013 – 2017. It provides the framework for the protection, use, development, conservation, management and control of water resources for South Africa, as well as the framework within which water must be managed at catchment level, in defined water management areas (DWA,2012). It is binding on all authorities and institutions exercising powers or performing duties under the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998). 3.1.2. Energy Although South Arica is a non-annex 1 country (not required to reduce its emissions of greenhouse gases), because the economy solely depends on fossil fuels the country is a significant emitter and it is one of the world’s top 15 most energy intensive economies, contributing significantly towards greenhouse emissions at a continental level. The main sources of energy supply are coal and nuclear. South Africa's economy is dependent on coal. The country’s 30 billion tonnes of reserves account for 95% of African coal reserves and 4% of world reserves. This abundance naturally makes the energy supply in South Africa very carbon intensive. The energy sector has larger environmental impacts than other economic sectors particularly due to its reliance on coal. Energy investments are under scrutiny, which is encouraging energy policies to seek to reduce emissions (DoE, 2008). The exploitation of fossil fuels for energy use leaves the environment even more vulnerable to climate change impacts hence there is need for regulation and use of sustainable practices. Poor rural households use fuel-wood as their primary energy source and this has severe environmental effects. The use of coal in urban areas results in indoor air pollution causing serious health consequences (White Paper Energy Policy, 1998). The Department of Energy (DoE) is responsible for defining and implementing the policy framework for the energy sector, while the National Energy Regulator of South Africa (NERSA) is responsible for regulating the sector, including the establishment of an overall electricity tariff regime. Eskom Holdings Limited (Eskom), a vertically integrated public utility is responsible for 96% of South Africa's electricity generation all transmission and 60% of distribution. South Africa has massive potential for renewable energy and the exploration of new sources have already begun. Biomass currently meets 8% of South Africa's primary energy supply demands particularly in rural areas, and it has been identified as a research priority (IRP, 2010). The government included pro-poor components in the electricity policy, such as accelerated access to electricity, subsidized electricity for the poor and the use of a pro-job strategy for economic growth supported by reliable, low cost electricity supplies. The government entered an electrification programme as part of its post-apartheid program in order to improve the distribution of income. The Free Basic Electricity (FBE) is targeted at the poor and aims to provide a minimum of 50kWh of energy free per month to each qualifying household. South Africa Country Scoping Report 29 One of the major priorities in the energy sector is managing related environmental and health impacts. The government promotes access to basic energy services for poor households in order to eliminate the negative health impacts arising from the use of certain fuels. Energy security for lowincome households can contribute to poverty reduction, increasing livelihoods and improved living standards. The reduction of energy-related emissions that are harmful to the environment and human health has also been prioritised together with ensuring a balance between exploiting fossil fuels and maintenance of acceptable environmental requirements. The energy sector is set to contribute towards economic growth, employment creation and provide infrastructure for households as well as contribute towards a successful and sustainable national growth and development strategy (DoE, 1998). South Africa is rich in energy resources in the form of fossil fuels (coal) and renewable sources (wind, biomass and solar), which are being explored by the Clean Development Mechanism. The Clean Development Mechanism seeks to reduce the amount of emissions produced by South Africa. Emissions are expected to increase with economic development although at a slower pace if the clean development path is followed. One of the main priorities is increasing access to affordable energy services particularly for disadvantaged households, small businesses, small farms and community services. Building thermally efficient low cost housing to promote energy efficiency and conservation has also been prioritised. There is a need for governance to play a significant role in clarifying the roles and functions of various energy governance institutions, and to strengthen the capacity and coordination between governments departments involved in the energy sector. Economic development within the sector is also set to be stimulated through such initiatives as encouraging competition within energy markets. The government is also making advances and encouraging research and exploration of renewable energy opportunities in the areas of solar power, wind power, pumped storage and hydropower schemes. Energy efficiency has been prioritised in all sectors through the collaboration of various departments and public authorities in order to improve the management of environmental impacts. Here stakeholders will be responsible for providing cleaner energy end-user technologies, environmental performance auditing and incorporating environmental costs in order to reduce environmental impacts. The development of integrated transport is currently being explored in some of the South African cities so as to develop low carbon cities and contribute towards efficient energy use. 3.1.3. Infrastructure More than 60% of South Africa’s population lives in urban areas, covering only 1.5% of South Africa’s surface area. The average growth rate for urban areas is higher than the population growth rate. Although urban areas function more efficiently with low per capital costs of services and land requirements for human settlement, they consume more resources and have a greater impact on the environment than other areas. South African cities are faced with urban sprawl, which has negative impacts on biodiversity and pollutes the land water and air. Due to the increased rate of urbanisation there is an increase in informal settlements in urban areas, located mainly on the periphery and in areas that are prone to disasters, lacking basic services and infrastructure, and are environmentally unsuitable. The following are identified impacts on infrastructure: South Africa Country Scoping Report 30 Increased problems caused by poor urban management such as poor storm water drainage systems and urban-induced soil erosion resulting in flash flooding. Increased storm intensity due to climate change would exacerbate such problems. Increasing water demand in a water scarce country placing pressure on water supply systems and infrastructure and a mismatch between investment in waste water treatment works and growth in demand and use. Flooding and coastal erosion resulting in the loss of coastal infrastructure (including breakwaters, roads and public amenities), habitat and ecosystem goods and services. Predicted rises in sea level may further exacerbate these impacts. Priorities in this sector include leveraging opportunities presented by urban densification to build climate-resilient urban infrastructure and promote behavioural change as part of urban planning and growth management. There is a need to ensure affordable lower-carbon public transport systems, and thermal efficient and climate-resilient human settlements. Another priority in this sector is developing effective information, monitoring and assessment tools to evaluate the resilience of cities and towns to climate. Also prioritised in this sector is the need to strengthen and enhance decision support tools and systems such as the Toolkit for Integrated Planning and develop geographic information systems that include asset management components for public infrastructure (DEA, 2011). Another priority is encouraging and developing water-sensitive urban design to capture water in the urban landscape and to minimise pollution, erosion and disturbance. Climate modelling limitations must be noted, appropriate down-scaling of climate models supported at national, provincial, metropolitan and district levels to provide climate information at a scale that can be integrated into medium- and long-term spatial development plans and information systems (DEA, 2011). Other identified priorities include the need for land-use zoning regulations to be enforced and sustainable ecosystems services used when considering settlements and infrastructure development proposals. Technologies for climate change adaptation need to be developed and used in both rural and urban areas. The potential impact of sea-level rise and storm surges needs to be taken into account when developing and investing in infrastructure. 3.1.4. Land Use and Ecosystems Climate Change will have adverse impacts on ecosystems that are already stressed as a result of unsustainable use and inadequate management (DEAT, 2004). Ecosystems will compromise one of the key responses available for South Africa to adapt to climate change: the use of ecosystem based adaptation to climate change response (DEAT, 2004). South Africa has a conceptual understanding of the possible impacts of climate change on many of its key biodiversity assets, a comprehensive and quantitative evaluation of various climate change impact, scenarios have yet to be undertaken for all significant ecosystems, especially with respect to the services they provide (DEAT, 2004, p.19). The following are projected climate change impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems: South Africa Country Scoping Report 31 Roughly 30% of endemic terrestrial species in South Africa may be at an increasingly high risk of extinction by the latter half of this century if climate change is not mitigated. Marine ecosystems and species are at risk from changes in water temperature, ocean acidification and from changes in ocean currents such as West Coast upwelling and Agulhas current strengthening. Change in South Africa’s marine and coastal environment is already being observed and this change has already had significant impacts on the fisheries sector and on the local economy of small-scale and subsistence fishing communities along the West Coast. Changes in rainfall patterns and temperatures, and rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels could shift the distribution of South African terrestrial biomes with many implications for species diversity, ecosystem processes such as wildfires, and critical ecosystem services such as water yield and grazing biomass. Increasing frequency of extreme rainfall events will influence runoff quality and quantity in complex ways, significantly affecting the marine and estuarine environment. Reduced water flow will increase the salinity of estuaries, affecting the breeding grounds and nursery areas of many marine species. Coastal estuaries will also be vulnerable to long-term sea-level rise. Rising atmospheric carbon dioxide has poorly known direct effects on ecosystems. It may be increasing the cover of shrubs and trees in Grassland and Savannah Biomes, with mixed effects on biodiversity and possible positive implications for carbon sequestration. More frequent wildfires (which appear to already show climate change-related increases in the Fynbos Biome) and increased prevalence of invasive alien species. These stresses combined with reduced and fragmented habitats will further increase the vulnerability of biodiversity to climate change. Identified priorities include strengthening biodiversity management and research institutions as well as conserving, rehabilitating and restoring natural systems that improve resilience to climate change impacts. Impact assessments, adaptation planning and climate change research into marine and terrestrial biodiversity and ecosystem services have also been prioritised. Effective monitoring and enhancing existing programmes to combat the spread of terrestrial and marine alien and invasive species have also been prioritised. Other priorities include expanding the protected area network (in line with the National Protected Area Expansion Strategy), encouraging partnerships for effective management of areas and expanding existing gene banks to conserve critically endangered species (DEA, 2011). 3.1.5. Agriculture Climate change significantly impacts agriculture and commercial forestry. These sectors also have significant potential for adaptation. Globally, agriculture is a key contributor to climate change, being responsible for about 14% of all GHG emissions. The agricultural sector will be affected by climate change particularly by increased temperatures, reduced rainfall and water scarcity. There will also be a reduction in suitable arable and pastoral land, length of the growing season and yields particularly along the margins of semi-arid and arid areas. Agricultural contribution to the country’s South Africa Country Scoping Report 32 GDP will decrease, which has already started happening over the years. Large scale farming will mostly be affected because of its dependence on irrigation as well as rural poor farmers who rely on rain for agricultural activities. The consequences will mainly affect food security and the national economy as agriculture remains one of the main contributors towards the country’s GDP. The livestock sector will also be affected by climate change impacts as rangelands will be lost as a result of tree encroachment resulting from a decrease in grasslands due to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations and increases in temperature. Climate change is also likely to affect the frequency and spatial extent of livestock disease outbreaks such as foot and mouth disease (DEA, 2011). The government has prioritised climate-resilient agricultural response which will need to acknowledge that agriculture should provide not only food, but also a range of other environmental and socio-economic benefits. Other priorities include the appropriate use of small-scale labourintensive agriculture techniques and models that have the potential to reverse the present decrease in agricultural jobs; contribute to empowerment goals; promote food security; conserve soil quality and structure; and contribute to biodiversity. Currently, the farmers in South Africa are implementing various adaptation options depending on the predicted climate. They are undertaking practices such as soil conservation, changing planting dates, climate smart agriculture (FAO), planting trees and irrigation. The development and use of climate models has been highlighted as key in building adaptation practices in the agricultural sector (DEA, 2011). 3.1.6. Health The South African health sector is one of the five key priorities of government. A significant proportion of South Africans, and in particular the poor, already have serious and complex health challenges compounded by poor living conditions. These include amongst the world’s highest rates of tuberculosis and HIV infection. In particular parts of the country, the coverage of vector-borne diseases like malaria, rift valley fever and schistosomiasis may spread due to climate change, requiring an expansion of public health initiatives to combat these diseases. The links between the environment, food security and the infectious profiles of communities and regions have been well established hence the need to develop and implement strategies in the health sector. Identified priorities in the health sector include reduction of ambient particulate matter, ozone, and sulphur dioxide concentrations by legislative and other measures to ensure full compliance with National Ambient Air Quality Standards by 2020. Under the health sector food security and sound nutritional policies form part of an integrated approach to health adaptation strategies. Other priorities include the development of public awareness campaigns on the health risks, the improvement of emergency medical services, the strengthening of information and knowledge on linkages between diseases and climate change through research and the improvement of the current malaria control strategy (DEA, 2011). 3.1.7. Industry and Livelihoods Climate change impacts causing loss of biodiversity inherently impact on livelihoods as functional ecosystems play a vital role in the country’s tourism and any activities within the green economy. Informal use of resources is also an essential livelihood strategy for many poor rural communities particularly in the forest and savannah biomes. Local residents harvest natural resources for South Africa Country Scoping Report 33 medicinal use, food, shelter, fuel and craft production (DEA, 2011). In this sector the following impacts have been identified: Vulnerable cities as a result of their slow adaptation to environmental changes and their dependencies on specific delivery mechanisms for critical services. Large amounts of energy consumption in cities , industries and dense urban settlements Vulnerability of informal settlements to conditions such as floods and fires, exacerbated by their location in flood- or ponding-prone areas and on sand dunes; inferior building materials; and inadequate road access for emergency vehicles As a result of apartheid planning the poorest communities are located on the periphery far away from services, employment and economic opportunities. Cities are relatively spread out thus they contribute to increased transport emissions. Spatial planning needs to address historical inequalities in land distribution without compromising the ability of the agricultural sector to contribute to food security Effective management of the interface between urban residents and their surrounding environment producing sustainable social-ecological systems needs to be addressed and climate resilience in the context of urban social-ecological systems needs to be developed further (DEA, 2011). 3.2. Gaps and Needs 3.2.1. Priority sectors South Africa is poorly equipped to deal with extremes. It is difficult to identify a single sector requiring greater assistance than others. There is a need for a coherent view of vulnerabilities. South Africa faces challenges in understanding, mitigating and adapting to predicted climate change. The challenges arise as a result of gaps in knowledge and understanding and in the country's ability to communicate, understand and to facilitate the implementation of solutions and actions at a landscape level. The water sector is one of the prioritised sectors in the Second National Communication. This is mainly because South Africa is a water scarce country and the situation is predicted to get worse due to climate change impacts. Some of the gaps in the water sector include lack of a comprehensive conservation and WDM to measure and conserve the country’s water resources. There is a need for a comprehensive WDM system as well as development of other strategies such as the National Groundwater Strategy currently being developed by the Department of Water and Forestry to enable water service providers to ‘diversify the water mix’ by using groundwater (DWAF, 2009). There is a lack of water and sanitation in some parts of South Africa, particularly among the poor, and there is a need to develop access to water. Water plays a critical role in people’s lives and it influences diseases and health. The poor continue to suffer from water borne diseases and their health deteriorates due to little or no access to water. Currently the water system needs to be more effective, efficient and sustainable, this is critical because South Africa is water scarce and climate change impacts are likely to exacerbate the situation. This can be done through improved management and delegation of responsibilities within catchment agencies supported by local municipalities and DRR/COGTA. There is a need to look at pricing strategies South Africa Country Scoping Report 34 ensuring that agriculture, industry and domestic users pay the right price for water and the payment goes back into conserving the water catchment (Marais, 2012). In the Agriculture and Forestry sector the gap lies in modeling of climate change scenarios. Different climate scientists tend to produce varying climate information (due to a number of reasons) and there is a need for scientists involved in modeling of climate scenarios to communicate and share information. This is made difficult by the fact that climate change itself is an unstable phenomenon that is difficult to predict, although there is growing research and development in climate information. There is a need to develop agriculture and forestry approaches and strategies that are climate-resilient, incorporate rural development planning, address food security, sustainable land management and help farmers adapt to climate change through ‘climate smart agriculture defined by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) as “… agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes greenhouse gases (mitigation) and enhance achievement of national food security and development goals”. They should also include short, medium and long-term adaptation scenarios or approaches. Research and technology needs to be improved. The development and use of Early Warning Systems need to be fine-tuned and used effectively. There is a need for effective support for disaster management to farmers and extension support that is effective to help support climate smart agriculture. Another gap that needs to be addressed in this sector is the lack of knowledge and information particularly among small scale farmers in rural areas. These gaps reveal the need to invest in education awareness programs (DEA, 2011). The Health sector has also been prioritized, particularly because South Africa has one of the highest incidences of HIV/AIDS and Tuberculosis. One of the key gaps in this sector is the lack of knowledge on the actual diseases and their implications by the public, especially the poor. Despite ongoing investment in HIV/AIDS awareness programs, it remains a stigmatized condition. As South Africa is one of the highest GHG emitters in Africa, there is need for comprehensive legislation, policies and plans to reduce emissions and improve air quality in order to promote healthy living environments. With the advent of food shortages it is necessary to ensure food security and sound nutritional policies and integrate them into health adaptation strategies (DEA, 2011). Although there is free healthcare in South Africa, there is a need for a system that pre-empts health issues and promotes a healthy lifestyle. A comprehensive National Health Service is currently being developed by the Department of Health. Under the Biodiversity and Ecosystems sector one of the gaps is lack of knowledge on the extent to which ecosystems are vulnerable to climate change impacts. Such knowledge will aid towards choosing intervention options, thus requiring vulnerability assessments, mapping and adaptation planning. There is a need for strengthened biodiversity management and research institutions. Although Impact Assessments are currently being done, the problem is that they are conducted as part of a checklist and are therefore not always done in a proper manner. Thus awareness programs need to be conducted and Impact Assessments need to be included as part of adaptation planning. Ecosystems are under attack from alien invasive species and this is a critical issues that needs to be addressed (DEA, 2011). The government also prioritises industry and livelihoods. One of the gaps in this sector is increased population in urban areas while the rate of services is not increasing in line with this urban South Africa Country Scoping Report 35 population increase. This has resulted in informal areas developing in the periphery of cities, in unsafe and unhealthy environments. There is an increase in poverty levels with a growing gap between the rich and the poor. Due to limited skills most of the poor find it difficult to penetrate the employment market in order to make a living. Climate change will exacerbate these conditions particularly through food shortages and water scarcity. Rural farmers lack knowledge and understanding of climate information, which could be improved with increased investment in education awareness programmes (DEA, 2011). Disaster Risk Reduction and Management is another prioritized sector with Early Warming Systems requiring substantial improvements. One of the main problems in this sector is loss and damage of property due to climate change impacts. The poor usually face difficulties recovering their goods and property hence mechanisms such as micro-insurance can be developed to help the poor recover their goods (particularly subsistence farmers in rural areas) (DEA, 2011). 3.2.2. Key opportunities The fundamental need at the moment is to understand the cross-sectoral implications of climate change adaptation (Midgley, 2012). A useful resource would be working with insurance companies and local municipalities and getting information and records regarding loss and damages as a result of extreme events. This work remains problematic due to issues regarding the release of such information in the private sector due to Intellectual Property. There is a current lack of concrete adaption planning and this therefore is an area that can be researched to come up with adaptation strategies. The use the of ecosystems-based approach to adaptation defined by the Convention of Biological Diversity (CDB) as “the use of biodiversity and ecosystems services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change” has growing support because it presents an opportunity to implement adaptation strategies fully and can bring together various sectors and stakeholders (DEA, 2011). The ecosystems based approach also contributes towards creating jobs for businesses and people through generating a green economy, involving locals helping them develop sustainable livelihoods through the green economy. 3.2.3. Good practice and maladaptation An example of good practice is the small scale rooibois tea farmers case study in the Nothern Cape (Midgley, Marais, Barnett & Wågsæther, 2012). A resource- poor community in the Northern Cape, South Africa set up a profitable member owned company (Heiveld Co-operative) with the support of local NGOs and academic partners. The Heiveld Co-operative is involved in sustainable management of rooibos plants with organic and Fairtrade certifications and the capacity to process 100 tonnes of tea per season. The tea is sold at premium prices local and internationally and promotes local economic diversification. A Participatory Action Research (PAR) technique was used that involves farmers, academics, NGOs and practitioners and allows farmers to continue working and developing and adapting sustainable practices and strategies. The adaptation of sustainable practices enables farmers to deal with the uncertainties of future climate and the fluctuating business environment. The farmers are also involved in daily climate monitoring which informs their short and long term farming strategies (Midgley, et al 2012). Some of the lessons include finding a balance between the independence of the co-operative and the support provided through the PAR process and other sources, and it has therefore been South Africa Country Scoping Report 36 important to regularly clarify responsibilities. Another lesson was engaging with capacity building as there was lack of experience in the co-operative. The project includes young people in management and women in governance structures thus empowering them with new skills and economic opportunities for both young people and women. One of the identified agricultural adaptation strategies in the SNC is conservation agriculture, which is exemplified in this case study (Midgley et al, 2012). The building of dams, coastal infrastructure and desalination plants particularly in the Western and Eastern Cape on land that is already degraded has resulted in maladaptation. This is because dams have silted up as erosion and sedimentation issues form and degraded ecosystems where not addressed before building infrastructures. Desalination plants where also forced to shutdown because they were not viable. There is need for investment in capacity building particularly with regards to sustainable landscape level catchment restoration and management that includes ecosystems based approaches. 3.2.4. Resource requirements The Second National Communication identifies the need to develop human capital, generate new and relevant knowledge, facilitate the establishment of research infrastructure and bridge the gap between research results and socio-economic outcomes (DEA, 2011). Over the past five years there has been an increased focus on dimensions of adaptation both internationally and locally. Integrative themes such as adaptive governance, effectiveness of institutional arrangements, social networks and the role of effective advocacy and information in decision making as well as stronger links to disaster reduction are being looked at critically. Barriers to adaptation include a lack of accessible and reliable information, lack of market access and few social platforms to allow engagement of civil society on climate change issues. Looking at past severe weather-related events, adaptation capacity is faced with challenges such as pervasive social vulnerability, inadequate planning, constrained integrated and spatial development as well as poor climate and disaster risk management (DEA, 2011). A key variable is in understanding how ecosystems are changing, where the change is taking place and how rapid the change is happening, hence there is a need for research to be done in these areas. There is also a need to understand complex interactions that take place within ecosystems and how changing certain aspects of any of them will affect other aspects. Any understanding gained in this manner will be used to improve predictive capability and to plan appropriate adaptation responses (DEA, 2011). Observation and monitoring are also vital in understanding the nature of change. Particularly, what the critical thresholds are that, if exceeded, will precipitate significant and possibly irreversible changes and what the consequences of such changes would be and what indicators can be used to detect them (DEA, 2011). The Adaptation Flagship programmes seek to address some of these issues and more money needs to be invested to ensure that research and implementation required is done (Marais, 2012). There is a gap in regional understanding mainly around natural variability of the climate in the region where South Africa is located. Hence there is a need to strengthen modelling capabilities of oceanatmosphere-biosphere in order to improve weather and seasonal climate predictions, with benefits to ecosystem services affecting food and water security, protection from extreme events and human well-being (DEA, 2011). There is also uncertainty regarding the regional effects of large-scale global South Africa Country Scoping Report 37 climate change. Regional responses to impacts of climate change remain unclear. Seasonal and decadal forecasts depend on the changing nature of the links between local climate and the three oceans surrounding the southern African landmass. The role of the Southern Ocean in modulating albedo (the ability of the earth to reflect solar radiation) needs more understanding. Other gaps involve understanding land, air and sea linkages particularly how they influence each other as well as the forms of change that will occur (DEA, 2011). 3.2.5. Constraints One of the key constraints to adaptation is a lack of financial and human resources needed to put adaptation plans into action. Additionally, a lack of financial and human resources is a key capacity building constraint for adaptation at a local level. When implementing adaptation measures issues related to personnel, capital and running costs present real challenges for adaptive capacity at local and municipal levels (Madzwamuse, 2010). One of the gaps in the National Climate Change Response Strategy includes ensuring adaptation preparedness. There is a lack of information concerning the extent of differentiated vulnerability at national and local levels. The National Climate Change Response Strategy needs to be reviewed to take into account climate impacts particularly in vulnerable areas and the resources supporting the rural poor’s livelihood strategies (Madzwamuse, 2010). Adaptation flagship programmes need to be implemented and vulnerability needs to be addressed through these programmes. Ecosystems based approaches have to be considered reduce vulnerability. Another constraint to adaptation is a lack of cooperation and power struggles between elected government structures and traditional decision-making powers. The struggle between two leadership structures at the municipal level undermines the ability of local government structures to achieve coordinated decision making and effective leadership. This tends to affect implementation of adaptation strategies at a community level (Madzwamuse, 2010). Another key challenge is resistance from developers whose plans are not always concerned with climate change impacts and often find adaptation and mitigation options limiting and climate information flawed. Currently there are few efforts to involve various ‘social-groups’ in climate change adaptation work. The involvement of ‘social groups’ in climate change adaptation would help set up social networks that can play a critical role in climate change adaptation. Hence the role of social networks and education in relation to climate change adaptation needs to be explored and used. Social networks are vital in facilitating adaptation in rural and urban areas (for example among farmers, water practitioners, business community and the community involved with adaptation in reference to disaster risk reduction). Various knowledge systems (such as indigenous knowledge) need to be explored in detail and used to inform adaptation strategies. 3.3. Potential Benefits of Chinese Engagement China has faced a number of debilitating climate change related disasters over the years, making it well-equipped in dealing with extreme conditions and disaster management. China learned the hard way that extreme rapid development makes a country vulnerable. In this regard, China is able to identify ‘what not to do’ in terms of development, though it is not clear if they will be able to identify what should be done (Midgley, 2012). South Africa can benefit from China’s highly developed technological sector, but preferably in a way that enables South Africans to develop and produce the South Africa Country Scoping Report 38 technology locally, using local expertise in the long term. South Africa is at a stage where there is a host of policies and plans that need to be implemented but lack the financial means to do so. China may be of financial assistance if it can offer funds to help implement these plans. China has, through its recent development, proved to the world that it has the capacity and expertise, hence South Africa can benefit from China through skills training and capacity building to develop local skills. South Africa values entrepreneurship for economic development and social development. China has over the years cultivated such skills hence South Africa can benefit from China in this regard particularly in the areas of ecosystems based adaptation and small enterprise development involved in the green economy in communities. South Africa is also implementing ecosystem based adaptation and ecosystem based small enterprise development and can share information. There is room for South Africa to upscale the current ecosystems based adaptation and green economy work through the South-South collaboration and support with China. China has been involved in development over the years and there is some good precedent (frameworks) that South Africa can learn from, particularly the newly developed towns. Relevant lessons can be identified from the way China is developing and used to inform climate change adaptation policies in South Africa. 4. Attitudinal Assessment 4.1. Development Priorities and Drivers The Second National Communication, Climate Change Response White Paper, and National Development Plan among other plans advocate for development that fosters effective climate change response as well as transition towards a climate-resilient and lower –carbon economy. Identified development priorities are creating jobs and livelihoods, expanding infrastructure, transitioning to a low carbon economy, improving education, quality healthcare, building a capable state, fighting corruption and transforming society and uniting the nation. There is relatively sound communication between the government and scientists hence climate change has been taken up and is set to be fully mainstreamed into all development plans produced in South Africa. For South Africa, economic development and growth can only be fully achieved if environmental sustainability and human development are achieved hand in had, hence there is a strong and growing focus on development that is climate resilient and builds a low carbon economy and cities. 4.2. Political Will As mentioned earlier in the report, the South African Constitution plays a critical role in informing environmental governance by establishing a right to an environment that is not harmful to health and well-being, balancing environmental protection rights to social and economic development and assigning environmental functions to various government agencies and requiring cooperation between them. South Africa has a substantial institutional arrangement, polices and a number of plans and initiatives that a reveal strong political will to act on climate change issues. The National Development Plan is a recent report revealing the magnitude of the government’s need and willingness to tackle issues and be involved with various stakeholders in dealing with climate change and poverty reduction issues. The Second National Communication, Climate Change Response White Paper, and National Development Plan among other plans advocate for development with effective South Africa Country Scoping Report 39 climate change response and transition towards a climate-resilient and lower –carbon economy and address climate change adaptation through Adaptation Flagship programmes. 4.3. Information of Government Policy Policy makers work together with the science community in developing policies. A number of policies, plans and research are developed by the three levels of government (national, provincial and local) and various independent institutions, organisations and civil society are also consulted during policy development. The government collaborates with universities and various academic institutions, scientists and organisations (local and international) in conducting research and development around climate change issues. The government welcomes parties to bring forth concerns and information in a bid to gain understanding and information about what is happening around issues of climate change. However there is a need for more stakeholder involvement, not only research and inputs into design of policy by all stakeholders such as business, NGOs, industry, labour, environmental groups. 4.4. Perceptions of China There are mixed perceptions about Chinese involvement in Africa from various stakeholders. There are concerns about the nature of lessons to be derived from China concerning climate change adaptation. China has developed rapidly over the years, but there are concerns about the quality of development that has occurred in some parts of China, particularly regarding issues of safety (because of the rapid rate of development). The massive influx of Chinese businesses and companies into South Africa has been received with a mixed response. Resentment of the Chinese presence in South Africa has been shown by some businesses as they believe the low cost Chinese products are flooding and taking over the market. The South African government wishes to diversify both its exports and trade partners, and China presents a good option because of its current economic growth, growing markets, and need for raw materials. These products are also exported and not used in South Africa or return at a much higher price. There are also concerns about China exploiting South Africa for its resources. Locals are concerned about the Chinese bringing in cheaper labour from China to work on projects in South Africa making it difficult for local people to get employed on Chinese run projects. There are also concerns that China brings in its own skilled labour into the country and once the project is done, the skilled people go back to China without imparting knowledge to local people. 4.5. Current Chinese Involvement In 2009 at COP 15 Copenhagen, South Africa joined with China, India and Brazil to form the BASIC group of countries, which has become a distinct voice in the climate change negotiations. BASIC countries were committed to act jointly at the Copenhagen climate summit in 2009. BASIC was initiated and led by China and seeks to define a common position on emission reductions. BASIC countries have been involved in giving least developed countries climate aid money as well convincing other countries (particularly least developed countries) to sign up to the Copenhagen Accord. BASIC agreed to help poor counties of the G77 with financial and technical aid. BASIC advocates for developing countries thereby demanding ‘equitable space for development’, provision of finance, technology and capacity building on climate change issues for developing countries. South Africa Country Scoping Report 40 South Africa is also part of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa) an association of leading emerging economies formed in 2010. BRICS members are all developing or newly industrialised countries, with the exception of Russia, and they are identified by their large, fastgrowing economies and significant influence on regional and global affairs. 4.6. Current South-South Learning There are a number of African institutional organisations in the region with whom South Africa has worked with. However, it should be noted that these organisations are constantly changing. Parties such as the Southern African Development Community (SADC) alignment, India, Brazil, South Africa (IBSA), G77 and the African Group are some of the significant institutions. With so many institutions already established, there is ample opportunity for South Africa to engage with other regions. As pointed out earlier South Africa has the potential to lead the continent in adapting to climate change with its strong policies and laws. SADC has a Climate Journalists Network (CJN) which has been in existence for six years and focuses on translating seasonal climate forecasts for media dissemination; it is however, impeded by a lack of funds. This is one of the forums that can be used to operationalize South-South Learning. Also at a regional level, efforts have been made to cooperate with the Ministers of the Environment Committee (AMCEN) and the African Union, in terms of strategy implementation. South Africa has been involved in some adaptation related South-South learning exchange initiatives, including a recent endeavour with Costa Rica on Payments for ecosystem services (PES). The Knowledge Exchange Programme was designed by Conservation International and Conservation South Africa to expose relevant South African officials to the lessons from the national PES programme of Costa Rica. The exchange involved presentations, facilitated discussions, active learning opportunities and field visits. The objectives of the exchange were to improve understanding and support for PES and its potential for natural resource conservation and sustainable development in South Africa and develop detail led understanding of national PES valuation methodologies. Another objective was to raise awareness of the range of technical tools, mechanisms including financial and policy, institutional structures and critical success factors for a national PES program. The exchange also sought to develop a framework for political championing of PES within South Africa, as well as to develop on-going lessons sharing between Costa Rica and South Africa on PES models and implementation, particularly at the regional level. The learning exchange was a relevant, important and practical learning experience for the future development of a national system for ecosystem service payments in South Africa. The task team identified a number of steps to be taken to foster on-going development and continued sharing of the political experience of Costa Rica. The identified steps are set to be implemented over the next months to initiate financing for the implementation of healthy ecosystems in water provision in South Africa. A further exchange visit including South African Minister of Water and Environment is being planned for 2013. Nepal Learns about Post-Conflict State Building from Rwanda and South Africa South Africa and Rwanda took part in a learning exchange with Nepal sharing knowledge on postconflict state building. The Government of Nepal was interested in learning how other countries reintegrated combatants into society and successfully increased the role of local government after similar conflicts. The learning exchange was facilitated by the World Bank. Officials from Nepal South Africa Country Scoping Report 41 visited South Africa and Rwanda to learn about security, integrating former combatants as well as policies and strategies to implement fiscal decentralisation and legal reforms. One of the key lessons learned by Nepali delegates was the importance of communication to form consensus across party lines among previously hostile groups. They also learned how post-conflict state building can be facilitated by an effective leader and by including the groups in decision making. Effective knowledge exchange lessons include acknowledging the fact that achieving peace in a post-conflict situation takes a long time and process is slower than anticipated and there is a need to ensure that each group is represented fairly and that open and frank discussions are facilitated (World Bank, 2011). Streamlining the Doing Business Environment in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) South Africa shared knowledge was shared with Ecuador, EGPY, Arab Republic of, Jordan, Lebanon, Mauritius, Morocco, Singapore, Syrian Arab Republic, United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. The Doing Business Project gathers and analyses data to compare business regulatory environments across economic and over time. The World Bank coordinated with MENA countries and organised a conference brining reformers across the region together to share experiences and lessons in promoting and enacting reforms. The exchange enhanced their knowledge and skills to pursue business registration reforms. The exchange enhanced networks, increased implementation know how and raised awareness. The organisers also learned that facilitating such exchanges requires country representative to communicate directly and not through headquarters. Another key lesson was to keep political issues in mind. The use of online networks helped organisers learn from participating countries (World Bank, 2011). Building Skills to improve the regulatory environments for business in Sub-Saharan Africa South Africa also took part in a learning exchange that involved Botswana, Mauritius, Rwanda, and Singapore as the countries providing knowledge and Burkina Faso, Burundi, DRC, Cote d’Ivoire, Kenya, Liberia, Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe as the recipient countries. The World Bank in collaboration with the Regional Multidisciplinary Centre for Excellence organised several knowledge exchanges as part of the ongoing Africa Regional Initiative to improve the business environment. Countries that ranked low on the Ease of Doing Business Index could interact and learn from the higher-ranking countries. Key lessons where: enhanced knowledge skills, improved consensus and teamwork, increased implementation know-how and strengthened coalitions. Lessons learned about the exchange itself include the need to dedicate staff to organising such an event and selecting senior government officials to participate in such exchanges (World Bank, 2011). Increasing Capacity to Generate Certified Emission Reduction (CER) Credits through Registering Projects for Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) This exchange was organised by the World Bank in collaboration with the Climate Change Department of the NDRC in China. Countries from Sub-Saharan Africa, East and Central Asia, the Middle East and North Africa where exposed to some of the best practices from China’s CDM experiences. The exchange raised awareness about the efforts and capacity need to initiate and scale CDM projects. Participants leaned how China responded to the key challenges of CDM implementation particularly the institutional environment (World Bank, 2011). South Africa Country Scoping Report 42 Forging Rural Development Strategies in South Africa South Africa took part in a learning exchange initiative with China in April 2010. The South African government wanted to make sure that every South African citizen benefits from the country’s economic growth. The government also wanted to improve its capacity to plan and ensure successful implementation of rural development and land reform policies. China was chosen as an exemplary model for successful rural development because of three decades of experience with policies and practices in rural development, poverty reduction and land reform. The process South Africa commissioned the World Bank to arrange a learning exchange initiative between China and South Africa organised by a Chinese World Bank member who understood South Africa’s rural development needs hence tailored the learning exchange to suit that. China’s high level rural development and poverty reduction officials met with their South African counterparts. South Africa sought to gain understating in the following context Capacity Building Goals that include; 1. Effectiveness of Organizational Arrangements 2. Efficiency on policy instruments 3. Strength of Stakeholder Ownership The intermediate capacity outcomes from the learning exchange include: enhanced knowledge and skills, enhanced networks, improved consensus and teamwork, increased implementation knowhow and raised awareness. Awareness was raised among South African delegates concerning integrated rural-urban development issues, the importance of rural industrialization and the potential for household-based farming. Elements identified as key in rural development, poverty reduction and land reform policies and programs were the importance of long-term vision, sustained commitment and properly mobilized resources. South African delegates also identified lessons from the mistakes that were made in the Chinese land reforms. China advised South Africa to develop a long-term approach to land reform and poverty reduction and take time to ensure strong interagency policy coordination with an annual implementation plan. South African development practitioners took the lessons they learned and used them to inform land reform policies and strategies such as the Green Paper on rural development and land reform, particularly on issues concerning rural industrialization and agro-village development. Future collaborative learning exchanges with China are set to occur, with a focus on implementation strategies. Some of the lessons learned for effective knowledge exchange include the fact that there is a need to earn the trust of country clients. Another lesson is the need to develop an in-depth understanding of the knowledge-seeking country’s needs and the challenges of the providing country’s capacities and knowledge. It is important to foster closer relationships with the key stakeholders at the South Africa Country Scoping Report 43 planning stage. Another lesson was the need for patience and tenacity to broker a consensual, effective agenda among all parties. Combining different learning methods for best results is encouraged. South Africa Country Scoping Report 44 5. Recommendations 5.1. Chinese Support of Adaptation China’s history of having to cope with many environmental disasters has forced the country to become well-equipped to manage future risks. Currently, China has some of the best early warning systems and disaster risk management programs that can be used as precedent by South Africa. Hence China has the potential to support South Africa to develop improved early warning and disaster management systems. This should include a focus on the importance of ecosystems in helping to buffer and reduce disaster impacts as well as how people, can cope better with these situations and more importantly prepare adequately so they are more resilient when disasters occur. China learnt the hard way that extreme rapid development, but perhaps has less to offer in terms of what should be done (Midgley, 2012). However China is recognised for its skills, technology, capacity and financial capabilities. For South Africa, China could provide support through learning exchanges, skills development initiatives and financial aid. South Africa has strong environmental legislation and policies that China can learn from. Knowledge exchanges can also be organised between South Africa and China to share knowledge on climate modelling best practices, thereafter the two countries can collaborate in organising knowledge exchanges with other countries on climate modelling. South Africa and China can also share knowledge on ecosystems based adaptation approaches and lessons can also be shared with other developing countries. It would be more beneficial if China imparted knowledge and skills to South Africa in order to equip South Africans so that they can do things on their own. In terms of technology, South Africa wants China to facilitate research and development on innovation and technological skills and equip South Africans so that technology can be made in South Africa and not imported in the long term. A key adaptation area in which Chinese support is sought is in the design and promotion of climate resilient infrastructure such as the rail system in Cape Town. South Africa would also benefit from Chinese support in ocean monitoring in the Pacific to improve understanding of and predictions for El Nino in South Africa. Another way that China can support South Africa is by making satellite observations available to South Africa for climate impact modelling and projections. China can also support South Africa in developing GMO and crop diversity in order to reduce vulnerability. 5.2. South-South Learning There is definitely space for South-South learning to occur between South Africa and other countries. South Africa has managed to develop solid policies and frameworks on climate change adaptation issues, even though much of it has yet to be implemented. South Africa can be used in learning exchanges to offer guidance in policy development to other countries, particularly in Africa. For South Africa, South-South learning can be initiated through learning exchanges involving field trips to get a sense of what is happening on the ground. South Africa is keen to host other countries in learning exchanges. For South Africa it is critical to build capacity, skills and technology. Hence South Africa wants people with such expertise to come and teach locals and equip them so that South Africans are able to undertake such tasks and locally produce machinery and technology for the long-term. South Africa Country Scoping Report 45 6. Summary South Africa is already experiencing some climate change related changes and disasters. The issues of climate change adaptation need urgent attention in South Africa. South Africa has a host of climate change polices and plans that need to be streamlined, integrated and implemented. The National Climate Change Response Strategy identifies priority sectors, their impacts and priorities, but a number of gaps remain, particularly with regards to adaptation preparedness and the extent of differentiated vulnerability at the national and local level. Hence the National Climate Change Response Strategy needs to be reviewed in order to incorporate socio-economic implications of climate change impacts especially in vulnerable areas with limited resources. One of the key challenges South Africa faces is implementation capacity in various institutions. For this reason, it is of critical importance that funds are directed towards capacity building at local and provincial government levels (DEAT, 2009). Adaptation responses need to be aligned with long-term development policies that seek to address the underlying causes of poverty and vulnerability, such as the land reform process and a review of the impacts of the macro-economic policies on the poor. In order to develop an integrated adaptation approach there is a need for a balance between bottom-up and top-down approaches to be used. The use of ecosystems based approaches have been identified as key in dealing with climate change adaptation. Local characteristics such as South Africa’s strong culture of civic engagement and activism can be explored and used in climate change adaptation endeavours. There is a need to build support for community based organisations (including civil society, private sector and NGOs) and local government structures as most of the adaptation work is done at this level particularly among poor communities hence the need for national government funds to flow at this level. The South African government is committed to climate change adaptation and welcomes the South-South learning initiative with other countries and Chinese facilitation. The primary areas in which Chinese contributions would be most beneficial are capacity building and skills training, technological support and financial aid to leverage and implement existing adaptation plans. South Africa Country Scoping Report 46 References Bryan, E., Deressa, T.,Gbetibouo, G. & Ringler,C. 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Accessed on 14/09/2012 http://wbi.worldbank.org/sske/result-story/2595 World Bank (2010) Building skills to improve the regulatory environments for business in SubSaharan Africa South-South knowledge exchange hub. Accessed on 14/09/2012 http://wbi.worldbank.org/sske/result-story/1729 World Bank (2011) Forging rural development strategies in South Africa South-South knowledge exchange hub. Accessed on 14/09/2012 http://wbi.worldbank.org/sske/result-story/2129 World Bank (2011) Increasing capacity to generate certified emission reduction (CER) credits through registering projects for Kyoto Protocol’s clean development mechanism (CDM) South-South knowledge exchange hub. Accessed on 14/09/2012 http://wbi.worldbank.org/sske/result-story/1711 South Africa Country Scoping Report 48 Acknowledgements The project team would like to thank and acknowledge Prof Guy Midgley at South African National Biodiversity Institute and Sarshen Marais, at Conservation South Africa for their significant contributions to this report. South Africa Country Scoping Report 49