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[Linking catalysts to Biology] Biological Catalysts Enzymes, termed as biological catalysts, are 3-D protein molecules made up from 20 different monomers called amino acids. The amino acids linked together have a common backbone, but differing side chains of structural and chemical variety, creating overall differences of great complexity. The diagram above shows the different levels a protein molecule is made up of, finishing off with a globular structure. First comes the primary structure made up of a sequence of amino acids joined together, followed by the secondary structure where the amino acid chains are bonded by Hydrogen bonds. In the tertiary structure, the amino acid chains fold to form a polypeptide chain into either Alpha helices or Beta pleated sheets by Hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, covalent bonds (disulphide bridges) & hydrophobic interactions between the amino acid side chains. Enzymes are tertiary structures, and not quaternary as they contain just one polypeptide chain rather than several polypeptides that make up the quaternary structure. "Biocatalyst" is a broad term used for an industrial catalyst produced biologically. This term is used synonymously for: pure enzymes enzyme mixtures formulated enzyme products crude enzymes cell fragments whole cells (viable or non-viable). *In some cases, plants or animals are used for the isolation of enzymes, but industrial enzymes are produced mostly using microorganisms in fermenter vessels. *Production of enzymes of choice can be increased to high levels by mutation and selection techniques. *Often, the microorganism excretes the required enzyme into the liquid medium in which they grow. The process of isolation is easy and enzymes can be obtained in large amounts within a relatively short time and at low cost. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Industrial Applications of Catalysts ~ Application Enzymes used Uses Biofuel industry Cellulases Break down cellulose into sugars that can be fermented to produce cellulosic ethanol. Ligninases Pretreatment of biomass for biofuel production. Proteases, amylases, lipases Remove protein, starch, and fat or oil stains from laundry and dishware. Mannanases Remove food stains from the common food additive guar gum. Amylase, glucanases, proteases Split polysaccharides and proteins in the malt. Betaglucanases and arabinoxylanases Improve the wort and beer filtration characteristics. Amyloglucosidase and pullulanases Make lowcalorie beer and adjust fermentability. Acetolactate decarboxylase (ALDC) Increase fermentation efficiency by Biological detergent Brewing industry reducing diacetyl formation. Culinary uses Papain Tenderize meat for cooking. Dairy industry Rennin [derived from the stomachs of young ruminant animals (like calves and lambs)] Hydrolyze protein in the manufacture of cheese. Lipases Produce Camembert cheese and blue cheeses such as Roquefort. Amylases Produce sugars from starch, such as in making high-fructose corn syrup. Proteases Lower the protein level of flour, as in biscuitmaking. Trypsin Manufacture hypoalle rgenic baby foods. Cellulases, pectinases Clarify fruit juices. Molecular biology Nucleases, DNA ligase and polymerases Use restriction digestion and the polymerase chain reaction to create recombinant DNA. Paper industry Xylanases, hemicellulases and lignin peroxidases Remove lignin from kra ft pulp. Food processing Personal care Proteases Remove proteins on contact lenses to prevent infections. Starch industry Amylases (from fungi and plants), amyloglucosideases, and glucoamylases Convert starch into glu cose and various syrups. Glucose isomerase Converts glucose into fructose in production of high-fructose syrups from starchy materials. Information Sources: 1)https://books.google.ae/books?id=9RGwwbLuIIQC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false 2) http://web.ist.utl.pt/ist11061/fidel/enzymatic/4/biocat.html 3) https://www.boundless.com/microbiology/textbooks/boundless-microbiologytextbook/industrial-microbiology-17/microbial-products-in-the-health-industry199/enzymes-used-in-industry-1004-5469/ 4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme RESEARCH WORK BY: KAUSAR ADAM ILLUSTRATED BY: MASHIAT TABASSUM