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Transcript
Structure and Function of Macromolecules Chapter 5 Macromolecules Giant molecules weighing over 100,000 daltons Emergent properties not found in component parts Macromolecules Multiple Units “meris” = ____________ _______________ Æ “one part” a relatively small molecule May repeat to make a more complex molecules _______________ Æ “two parts” Complex molecule made of two units of a monomer ____________ Æ “many parts” A long complex molecule made of similar or identical monomers Dimers & polymers connected by ____________ bonds Synthesis of Dimers and Polymers Synthesis by ______________ reactions = “______________” reactions Because molecule of ______________ lost in process One monomer contributes H+, other contributes OH- Process repeats while building polymer Requires ______________ input Aided by ______________ 5-1 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Breakdown of Dimers and Polymers Broken down by ______________ “water” + “break” Bonds between monomers break with addition of ______________ + H goes on one monomer - OH goes on the other e.g. During digestion Breakdown large molecules Redistribute parts Re-assemble parts into new polymers elsewhere Four Classes of Macromolecules ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ ______________ Carbohydrates ______________ – and their polymers ___________________ (single, or simple sugars) e.g. glucose Monomers ___________________ (two monosaccharides joined by condensation) e.g. sucrose (table sugar) Dimers ___________________ (many sugars joined by condensation reactions) e.g. cellulose Polymers 5-2 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Monosaccharides Generalized formula: ______________ e.g. C6H12O6 (glucose) Name usually ends in “ – __________ ” Multiple hydroxyl groups One carbonyl group Size of carbon skeleton varies (3-7 carbons long) Most common: ______________ ______________ ______________ Some Monosaccharides – Linear Form Monosaccharides Form ______________ at Equilibrium Uses for Monosaccharides Major source of ______________ for cells ______________ most common Used as component parts in Disaccharides (dimers) Polysaccharides (polymers) Carbon skeletons used for ______________ of small organic molecules Amino acids Fatty acids Disaccharides Two monosaccharides joined by ______________ linkage (dehydration reaction) e.g. maltose (2 glucoses) – ingredient in beer production e.g. sucrose (glucose + fructose) – transport sugar in plants 5-3 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Polysaccharides Polymers of sugars (monosaccharides) Several hundred to several thousand monomers ______________ linkages Functions related to architecture and position of glycosidic linkages Two groups of polysaccharides ______________ polysaccharides ______________ polysaccharides Starch Cellulose Glycogen Chitin Storage Polysaccharides – Starch ______________ – repeating glucose monomers Storage in ______________ Helical form Amylose (simplest form) unbranched with 1–4 linkages Amylopectin (more complex) branches at 1–6 linkages Storage Polysaccharides – Glycogen ______________ – repeating glucose monomers Storage in ______________ (liver and muscle) ______________ storage – not long-term Can’t store enough to sustain for more than a day Similar to amylopectin, but more branched Structural Polysaccharides – Cellulose ______________ – found in cell walls in plants Polymer of glucose (like starch) Every other glucose is upside down Due to differential placement of –OH group β-glucose has –OH ______________ ring α-glucose has –OH ______________ ring 5-4 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Starch vs Cellulose ______________ with α-glucose 1-4 linkages ______________ with β-glucose 1-4 linkages Structure of Cellulose Straight chain (starch is helical) No branching ______________ bonding between parallel chains Digestion of Starch and Cellulose Enzymes that digest starch (α-glucose) cannot digest cellulose (β-glucose) Most ______________ cannot digest cellulose Use cellulose as fiber to aid movement of food through the gut What can digest cellulose? Some ______________ Some ______________ Present in the ______________ of cows and other ruminants (1st compartment of stomach) Present in the gut of termites Structural Polysaccharides – Chitin Glucose monomer with N-containing branch at #2 carbon Found in cell walls of ______________ Found in exoskeletons of ______________ Insects Spiders Crustaceans (lobsters, shrimp, etc) 5-5 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Lipids ______________ macromolecules Not polymers (________ repeating monomers) Smaller than polymeric macromolecules Mostly _________________ ____________ polar bonds Grouped together because of ______________ affinity for water Minor groups Major groups ______________ Waxes ______________ Some pigments ______________ Lipids – Fats “_________________” Formed by ______________ synthesis Glycerol + 3 fatty acids ______________ _____ – carbon ______________ chain, each C has -OH ______________ acids Long ________________ chain w/ carboxyl functional group on end May be ______________, or may be 3 ______________ fatty acids Lipids – Fats Purpose: ______________ storage Much more compact than polysaccharides Energy rich (______________, like petroleum) Animals use in ______________ (fat) tissue (compact) Also protects organs Plants use in seeds (compact) 5-6 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Variation ______________ of chains ______________of double bonds ______________ of double bonds Fatty Acids and Fats ______________ fatty acid ______ double bonds All ______________ bonds w/ hydrogen Pack ______________ together ______________ at room temperature Animal origin Fatty Acids and Fats ______________ fatty acid One or more ______________bonds ______________ in fatty acid tails Can_____ pack tightly ______________ at room temperature Plant (or fish) origin Lipids – Phospholipids Similar to fats _____ fatty acid tails (not 3) ______________ group on third hydroxyl of glycerol Negative charge Polar/charged molecules may associate ______________ tail Phospholipid ______________ Cell membrane components 5-7 ______________ head Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Phospholipid Bilayers in Cell Membrane ______________ bilayer Cell membrane components Hydrophobic tails to the ______________ of bilayer Hydrophilic heads to the ______________ of bilayer Lipids – Steroids Lipids with special carbon skeleton Four fused ______________ Different functional groups ______________ important (Fig. 5.14) Precursor to other steroids e.g. Progesterone e.g. Testosterone e.g. Estrogens Proteins From Greek “proteios” = “first place” Important class of molecules More than half the dry-weight of cells Complex _______________ Multiple _______________ – multiple structures Structural ______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ Regulate metabolism Accelerate specific reactions in cell 5-8 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Building Blocks of Proteins All proteins are complex polymers All use same ________ monomers Amino Acids (monomers) = _______________ Amino group and carboxylic acid group _______________ Polymer of amino acids _______________ One or more polypeptides, folded and coiled Amino Acids Organic molecules with both _______________ group and _______________group Amino group bonded to α (alpha) carbon “_____” – variable group, or “side chain” _____________ ______________ determines which amino acid R-groups ____ different R-groups give ____ amino acids From hydrogen to complex chains with ring structures and functional groups R-group determines The _______________ of amino acid _______________ or _______________of amino acid Nonpolar Amino Acids Determined by R-Group Polar Amino Acids Determined by R-Group Electrically Charged Amino Acids Determined by R-Group 5-9 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Linking Peptides: the _______________ Bond Peptides linked by peptide bonds _______________ Formed by _______________ (condensation) reaction _______________ (triggered) by enzymes Reaction is between _______________ group and _______________ group Polypeptide has amino end and carboxyl end ____ – terminus and ____ – terminus Polypeptide to Protein Polypeptide – long _______________ of peptides Protein – _______________ into unique conformation How it folds determines function Four levels of protein structure _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ Primary Structure Each protein has a unique _______________ of amino acids e.g. Lysozyme has 129 amino acids (enzyme that lyses cells) Arranged in a predetermined order Arrangement determined by genetics 20 possible a.a.s at each position 20129 ways of arranging a.a.s Change primary structure, can change rest of _______________ and change function 5 - 10 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Amino Acid Substitution Single amino acid _______________ changes protein _______________ e.g. Normal hemoglobin to abnormal Æ sickle-cell anemia Hemoglobin has 146 a.a.s Change glutamine to valine in ONE spot Hemoglobin collapses into sickled cells This variant is encoded on DNA and is inherited Normal and Sickled Red Blood Cells Secondary Structure _______________ or _______________ due to hydrogen bonding Coils _______________ _______________ e.g. lysozyme Folds _______________ _______________ sheets e.g. spider silk – structure makes spider silk very strong Tertiary Structure Further _______________ of polypeptide “Hydrophobic interaction” Clustering of _______________ regions _______________ from water _______________ bonding Weak _______________ bonding Weak Disulfide bridges between cysteine monomers _______________ and very strong 5 - 11 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Quaternary Structure _______________ or _______________ polypeptide units aggregated together e.g. collagen Fibrous protein w/coiled helices coiled again in supercoil – like rope Makes good connective tissue e.g. hemoglobin Globular protein w/2 α and 2 β chains per hemoglobin molecule Denaturation A change in _______________, or folding Occurs when conditions change _______________ _______________concentration _______________ Change from _______________ to _______________solvent Other chemicals ___________________ Denaturing makes protein biologically _______________ Some can renature (reverse) when conditions change back Others are irreversible – e.g. egg whites Protein Structure Overview Primary to Quaternary Nucleic Acids _______________ polymers Two types of nucleic acids DNA is the repository of information _______________ of instructions for making proteins ________ (Deoxyribonucleic acid) OR RNA is the reader, or messenger ________ (Ribonucleic acid) Directs protein synthesis Proteins mediate all other processes 5 - 12 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules DNA Storehouse of _______________ _______________ Instructions for all cellular and intercellular processes Does ______ directly participate in those processes Doesn’t even oversee processes Just a repository of the instructions Must be something to read the instructions and to direct synthesis so processes can proceed ____________ Reading DNA to Make Proteins DNA holds information ____RNA picks up the information from the DNA In nucleus in eukaryotes mRNA relays information to ribosomes (in cytoplasm) Ribosomes made of ____RNA and protein ____RNA bring correct amino acids to ribosome In cytoplasm Polypeptide assembled at ribosome How many kinds of RNA are used in this process? _______ Nucleotides: Component Parts of Nucleic Acids Nucleic acid polymers made from _______________ monomers Each nucleotide composed of ____________ parts _______________ group _______________ (5-carbon sugar) _______________ or ____________________ _______________ base Pyrimidines – smaller Purines – larger 5 - 13 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules ___________________ 6-membered ring of carbon & nitrogen Three pyrimidines differentiated by functional groups _______________ (DNA or RNA) ________________ (DNA only) ________________ (RNA only) ____________________ 6-membered ring of carbon & nitrogen Plus 5-membered ring fused to first ring Two purines differentiated by functional groups _______________ (DNA or RNA) _______________ (DNA or RNA) ____________ucleotides Many nucleotides linked by phosphate groups and sugar of next nucleotide Results in repeating _______________ -_______________ backbone Appendages are nitrogenous bases Purines or pyrimidines _______________ of bases along backbone determines gene (e.g. AGGTAACT) _______________ = information to make one protein RNA is _______________ strand – not very long Double Helix of DNA DNA is _______________ – stranded – very long Spiral form, wound around imaginary axis Sugar-phosphate _______________ are on _______________ Nitrogenous _______________ are in _______________ Bases are paired & held by _______________ bonds 5 - 14 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Complementary _______________ _______________ Each base has a partner that it pairs with Adenine with Thymine Guanine with Cytosine Always a purine with a pyrimadine Strands are __________________ So if one strand reads AGGTAACTT Then the matching strand reads TCCATTGAA Predictable – therefore easy to copy DNA __________________ DNA must be replicated before cell division Strands separate Each one is a _______________ for a new strand to be made Two identical copies are made _______________ of DNA makes _______________ (heritability) possible Mistakes in DNA Replication Mistakes relatively common Usually corrected by enzymes that check Sometimes mistakes slip through Next generation of cells will replicate change _______________ in DNA may _______________resulting _______________ 5 - 15 Chapter 5: Structure and Function of Macromolecules Changing Proteins Help Us Track Evolutionary Relationships Many changes over _________ results in variation in proteins handed down to offspring This results in protein differences in different _______________ or groups of organisms Differences in proteins from two populations may _______________ until the populations are very different from one another More _______________ proteins indicate changes a _______________ time ago Example of Evolutionary Relationships Using One Gene 5 - 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