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Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective Running head: BEHAVIORISM Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective Nicole R. Terrell James Madison University 1 Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective Abstract Behaviorism, based on the assertion that environmental stimuli elicit behavioral changes that cause certain consequences and reactions in organisms, is a theoretical perspective that has become a seminal facet of the psychological realm involving learning and behavior theory. Esteemed theorists, such as Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, John Watson, and Albert Bandura have each formulated and tested their own views of behavioral concepts. By doing so, they have created a concrete foundation from which researchers can comprehend and test new and innovative methods of understanding and altering behaviors in organisms. When utilized in a learning environment, behaviorist approaches can act as liaisons between teaching methods and knowledge acquisition. This creates a clear path towards meaningful learning that can be readily accessed throughout the course of one’s lifetime. 2 Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 3 Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective The theory of behaviorism focuses on the premise that certain stimuli within a particular environment cause organisms to react, or behave in a specific manner. When an organism is exposed to a specific stimulus repeatedly, the resulting behavioral reaction becomes prominent within the organisms mentality, thus formulating a meaningful learning response that presents itself over an extended period of time (Blackbourn, 2006). Loosely based on the Gestalt Theory of Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), which asserts that situations should be viewed as a combination of its parts, rather than as separate, individual entities (Goodwin, 2007), behaviorism focuses on the root causes of behavioral reactions. As a foundational theoretical perspective, behaviorist approaches are evident in a variety of teaching and learning situations, and find their roots within the educated views of many famed theorists in psychological history. Edward Thorndike (1927), one of the forefathers of the behaviorist approach to learning, created the groundwork from which to build the structured, concrete theory now known as behaviorism today. According to Thorndike, learning occurs through the formulation of a bond between exposure to the sensory data and the impressions that were made on the mind as a result of this exposure (as cited in Blackbourn, 2006). The “bonds” and “connections” formed from these processes are keys to the creation or destruction of certain habits, with their occurrence being defined by three specific laws derived from Thorndike (1927) himself. The first law, known as the Law of Readiness, makes the following assertions: “A. When a conduction unit is ready to conduct, conduction is satisfying” “B. For a conduction unit ready to conduct, not conducting is annoying” “C. When a conduction unit is not ready for conduction and is forced to conduct, conduction is annoying” (Blackbourn, 2006) Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 4 Throndike’s second law, the Law of Exercise, states that mental connections and behaviors are either strengthened or weakened through the repetition (law of use), or ceasing (law of disuse) of certain practices that are meant to being about a specific response. (Blackbourn, 2006). Lastly, Thorndike’s third law, the Law of Effect, focuses on the consequences of a behavior. Simply stated, behavioral responses that elicit positive results or consequences increase the strength of the connection between the stimulus and the behavioral response, and lessen the connection and response frequency when unfavorable consequences occur (Blackbourn, 2006). In culmination, these important laws create the framework from which behaviorism was formed in that they define the cause and effect relationship that occurs as a result of organisms coming into contact with certain stimuli. It was from Thorndike’s theoretical framework that John Watson (1878-1958), known as the founder of traditional behaviorism, generated his theory of how behavior is affected by certain stimuli. According to Watson, psychology is a science that should be viewed objectively, where one looks at all angles of a situation, and bases assumptions on both observations and behavioral measurements. The goal of the psychological sciences should be to build a concrete understanding of the relationship between stimuli and the behaviors that elicit certain consequences as a result of these stimuli. Furthermore, the concept of conditioning should be taken into account in terms of organisms’ long-term, repetitive responses to these stimuli over an extended period of time (Goodwin, 2007). Watson successfully demonstrated this “conditioning” response with his 1920 study of “Little Albert”, where an infant of the age of eleven months was conditioned to be fearful of a white rat because Watson exposed the rat to the boy while simultaneously implementing a loud noise. This conditioned the boy to associate the white rat with the loud noise, causing a fearful response. Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 5 Focusing on John Watson’s opinions with regard to the practice of conditioning an organism’s responses through consequential results over one’s lifespan, B.F. Skinner formulated an advanced approach to eliciting desirable and undesirable behaviors in organisms. Skinner believed that situations that exude certain consequences, doled out by either an individual facet or the natural surrounding environment, determine whether or not a specific behavior will reoccur in the future. Due to the fact that individual organisms react differently to certain situations, each of us has a unique idea of how we can and should react when certain stimuli present themselves (Wasieleski, 2008). Furthermore, behaviors will recur through an extended period of time only if the individual is exposed to a stimulus at a gradual pace, with the stimulus being introduced through a repetitive process. For example, a child may see that his classmate receives a lollipop every time she gets all of her spelling words correct. If his classmate repeatedly spells all of her words correctly on every test, the child will see her getting this reward more frequently, and comprehend the relationship between getting a good grade and receiving a prize, thus resulting in a behavioral learning experience and supporting the constructs of operant conditioning. However, if the girl only receives the lollipop once in a while, even though she usually gets all of her words correct, the child may not make the connection between the good grade and the candy. To explain Skinner’s operant conditioning techniques more clearly, one must focus first on the Three-Term Contingency that Skinner formulated to validate the idea that specific stimuli will always elicit specific responses or consequences. This contingency culminates the following events when dealing with environmental stimuli: 1. An event occurs that sets the stage for a response, based on past experiences where such a response elicited a certain consequence based on that stimulus Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 6 2. The actual behavior or the response to that behavior 3. The consequence will only occur if the desired response occurs ("Operant Conditioning." 21st Century Psychology: A Reference Handbook. 2007). Based on this Three-Term Contingency, Skinner proposed a series of reinforcement and punishment types, organized into what we presently know as the “Skinner Box”, as a means of identifying what types of consequences result from the occurrence of certain events or situations. For example, a child that performed well on a test would receive a free pizza for doing a good job (positive reinforcement). The teacher is adding a stimulus through a reward in order to elicit high test grades in the future. However, the teacher finds that there are a few students who have not performed well on tests. To remedy this situation, she enforces a new policy in which the students are not allowed to play outside at recess, which takes away a positive aspect of their day, and reduces their chances of performing poorly on future exams due to the fact that they do not want to lose their recess time (negative reinforcement). The teacher has taken away a positive stimulus to help deter the negative consequence of receiving a poor grade. Therefore, the concept of reinforcement hinges on the idea that one wishes to increase or decrease the probability of a particular response in the future. Conversely, the goal of punishment is to decrease the likelihood of a behavior in future situations. For example, an individual accidently forgets to pay their credit card bill, and makes a late payment. The credit card company then charges a late fee. Based on this consequence, the individual has learned to make payments on time so that they do not incur extra costs (positive punishment). The addition of the late fee has decreased the chances of making a late payment in the future. On the other hand, this individual finds that he overspends money when he goes to the mall. Therefore, he stops making trips to the mall, so as to avoid spending so much money Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 7 (negative punishment). In this situation, the person has removed himself from the stimulating situation in order to stop himself from overspending. Based on these assertions, the combination of reinforcement and punishment practices create the framework of what operant conditioning is meant to do. We exude certain behaviors based on what the consequences will be, and avoid situations where those results are not desirable. This concept illustrates the true essence of Skinner’s theory, while taking into the account the visions of John Watson (1913) and Edward Thorndike (1927), notably through the comparison of operant conditioning and the Law of Effect. When certain behaviors result in positive consequences, the behavior is more likely to occur in the future because one expects the positive consequences to reoccur. Consequently, when a specific behavior results in a negative consequence, one would be less likely to elicit that behavior again, so as to avoid the negative situation that may result from it. The acts of reinforcement and punishment work as learning tools by shaping desirable and undesirable behaviors. This illustrates the cause and effect relationship between behavioral action and consequences. Behaviorism began to dominate the world of psychology during the 1920’s, and led other researchers to explore the many facets of this school of thought. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) also relied greatly on John Watson’s views regarding conditioning, and formulated an in-depth approach to behavioral roles in the psychological sciences. Specifically, Pavlov chose to direct his focus towards classical conditioning practices. Using dogs as his subjects, Pavlov created an experiment in which he forced the dogs to salivate by putting a type of meat powder (unconditioned stimulus) on their tongue. After doing so, he included sounds involving the calibration of equipment (a neutral stimulus) when forcing the dogs to salivate (unconditioned, Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 8 reflexive response), and eventually observed the fact that the dogs salivated (now a conditioned response) as a result of the experimenter’s presence and the equipment calibration sounds (a conditioned stimulus) (metronome – predicts the arrival of food and is a conditioned stimulus), even when the meat powder variable was removed from the experiment (Escobar, 2007). Pavlov’s experiment on classical conditioning is one of the most innovative and successful experiments of its kind in that it clearly exhibits the behavioral responses of an organism based on certain stimuli, and represents the brain’s ability to create certain associations between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. It culminates the very essence of Watson’s (1920) viewpoints regarding lifetime conditioning, while paralleling the ideas behind Thorndike’s (1927) Law of Exercise, where repetition of certain stimuli results in the strengthening of certain behaviors. The ability of organisms to create mental connections such as these between environmental stimuli and behavioral reactions encapsulates the very essence of successful learning, and provides a legitimate argument for the reasons as to how and why certain habits are formed. As the concept of behaviorism adapted through the years to adapt to changing psychological views, different perspectives regarding this theoretical framework became more prominent. Albert Bandura (1959), a renowned researcher in the field of behavioral studies, took on a slightly different approach to understanding behavioral learning tendencies and formulated what we know today as the social learning theory. This area of study was focused primarily on modeling behavior, as how this affects individuals within a learning environment (Cox, 2005). One of Bandura’s (1961) most famous experiments regarding social learning theory was his Bobo Doll Study where he showed a video to children in which a woman beat an inflatable doll. Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 9 After viewing the video, Bandura (1961) placed the children in a room with toys, including the inflatable doll, and discovered that these children mimicked the behavior of the woman rather than socialize and play with their peers. This study represents a prime example of the effects of modeling on the creation of learned behaviors, creating a direct link between behaviorist theories and social learning approaches. Bandura’s (1959) social learning theory contained four steps involved in the process of modeling behavior. The first step, involving attention, asserts that individuals who pay a higher amount of attention as an observer have a greater chance of learning. The second step, concerned with retention, focuses on the ability to remember what one has witnessed or observed. The third step, regarding reproduction, addresses the ability of an individual to recreate a specific observed behavior. Lastly, the fourth step of Bandura’s social learning theory explains motivation, or the reason why an individual chooses to model a particular behavior (Cox, 2005). In combination, these four steps represent the reasoning behind why organisms are so impressionable in terms of learning situations, and how easily a developing mind can be taught to exhibit a particular behavior, based solely on observation alone. Bandura’s social learning theory is loosely based on the concepts of B.F. Skinner in terms of reinforcement and punishment. According to Bandura (1959), motivation to model a particular behavior can occur for a variety of reasons, including promised and vicarious reinforcement, promised and past punishment, and vicarious punishment. Despite his inclusion of punishment as a means of determining motivational factors, Bandura (1959) felt that reinforcement strategies were more vital to the development of behaviors than punishment factors were, mainly because punishment does not urge an individual to exhibit a specific Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 10 behavior. However, he makes it clear that each type of motivator holds some relevance with regard to influencing behavior models. Motivators support the theories of reinforcement and conditioning proposed by B.F. Skinner (1936) and John Watson (1913). In a practical setting, the theories of behaviorism have been utilized in a variety of ways throughout psychological history. A wide variety of research has been conducted regarding behavior modification, resulting in a breadth of new knowledge that can be used to explore how and why we respond to certain stimuli in a particular way. One of the most useful ways by which to incorporate this research into a real life situation is to consider the behavior of employees in terms of their productivity and turnover intentions. Organizations often find themselves at odds with their workers because they are not receiving the proper amount of work output from their employees. Furthermore, turnover rates are often high when production levels are low. This effects both personal and organizational goals, and inhibits the ability of the company to properly provide services to their customers. These situations represent an opportunity to incorporate behavioral perspectives into the work culture in order to modify employee behaviors in terms of productivity and turnover cognitions. In terms of using behavior modification to increase productivity in the workplace, simplistic variations of the operant conditioning approach can be used to alter certain behaviors. For example, Deckop, Konrad, Perlmutter, & Freely (2006) conducted a study that explored how human resource practices affected the overall satisfaction and turnover rates of employees who were former welfare clients. They found that employees who received better healthcare benefits and financial incentives were more likely to remain satisfied and stay with the organization. Furthermore, Deckop et al. (2006) determined that the use of employee appraisal was a positive Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 11 factor in terms of employee satisfaction. Based on these findings, one could assert that the addition of financial incentives and appraisal by management led to higher levels of satisfaction (and possibly productivity), thus supporting Skinner’s theory regarding positive reinforcement. The principles of operant conditioning can therefore be applied even in the most simplistic form, so as to increase the chances of positive behaviors occurring (i.e. higher production and satisfaction), and avoid having to continue to pay employees who are simply not getting the job done. Modeling certain behaviors in order to positively influence changes within employees’ current productivity rates and abilities is an innovative way to incorporate behavioral principles into the workplace. The consideration of transference of knowledge practices, which has become an increasingly important element in determining organizational success, can be used as a basis from which to create a nexus between these two principles. According to Kalling (2003), individuals who are highly motivated to search out new knowledge are more likely to be successful in learning and utilizing new information in a useful manner. Therefore, motivation is a key factor in supporting the process of transferring knowledge because employees who are motivated to learn will be open-minded to learning new techniques. Through the lens of Albert Bandura’s (1959) social learning theory regarding modeling behavior, one can assert that managers must model positive behaviors in terms of showing the satisfying aspects of being open to knowledge transfer practices. This can be accomplished by modeling positive behaviors such as showing enthusiasm for one’s job, as well as acting as the “go to” person when something in the office goes wrong. Other employees may see how the manager’s positive attitude helps them to appreciate their job, and may be open to learning new knowledge so that they too can experience satisfaction with their careers. Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 12 One of the greatest advantages of viewing situations through the eyes of a behaviorist is that the concept of experience is largely incorporated into the foundation of the learning perspective itself. B.F. Skinner’s experiments on operant conditioning exemplify the fact that we are often conditioned to elicit certain responses based on our experiences with those situations in the past. Therefore, we base our reactions on our feelings towards previous outcomes. This concept makes up a large part of the adult learning process as a whole, and can be subtly applied when one is instructing adult learners. According to Malcolm Knowles (1990) (Thompson, 2004), the theory of andragogy asserts that adult learners use their past experience in their present endeavors to help foster the learning process. This supports B.F. Skinner’s findings in that an adult learner who has had a positive experience with certain teaching methods in the past (such as technology-supported lectures), will be more responsive to similar learning situations in the future. Furthermore, adults who have experienced positive situations in the classroom might be more likely to return to school because they may expect to have the same experience again. The concept of repetition in supporting behavioral constructs is an incredibly vital aspect of behavioral theories, and represents part of the reason why this learning approach is so useful. A large part of learning takes place through repeatedly exposing learners to certain stimuli, as represented by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments on classical conditioning. A concept known as the spacing effect, where it is thought that providing information repeatedly while placing different events in between each repetition will increase one’s ability to recall information (Explicit Memory, of Educational Psychology Encyclopedia, 2007), supports this assertion further. These ideas can be applied to the workplace through the implementation of training interventions, where employees can repeatedly hone their skills to and stay abreast of the latest knowledge available in their area. By taking into account behavioral viewpoints, managers can better Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 13 comprehend the necessity of training their workers, so as to increase the capabilities of the employees to more efficiently achieve both personal and organizational goals. Despite the fact that behavioral approaches have been successful in explaining why we react to stimuli in a certain way, one of the downfalls to this approach is that we have not figured out how to accurately modify certain types of negative behaviors. This is increasingly evident in our criminal justice system. Despite the fact that we have long-term jail sentences and the death penalty written into the punishment aspect of our laws, we still find that there are increasing numbers of repeat offenders. This directly contradicts Skinner’s theory that implementing negative punishments will deter an individual from repeating the same acts in the future. Situations such as these leave us with the question of how to properly motivate individuals to avoid illegal situations when the utilization of punishment mechanisms does not work. From a personal standpoint, the behaviorist approach has proven to be affective throughout the entirety of my life. We are predisposed to learn through imitation and social networks from the time that we are infants. This process is vital to our development, and often determines the type of individual that we will grow up to be. For example, working in the field of criminal justice, I come across a wide variety of defendants on a daily basis. Many of them have families with a long history of criminal activity, with their parents and siblings having been convicted of similar crimes. This illustrates to me as an observer that these kids are taking part in illegal activity because this is what their parents have done. The behavior of their parents has taught their children that it is okay to commit crimes. This represents a prime example of why it is so important to remember that your children are always watching you, and make judgments on Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective 14 future situations based on how they saw you react to them in the past, this depicting the modeling relationship described by Bandura (1959). I have also found that children are more apt to respond positively in school settings when the facets of positive and negative reinforcement take place. For example, as petty as it may seem, I was always petrified of getting my name put on the board in elementary school because this was a punishment that the teacher had instilled to help identify those students who were misbehaving that day. This tactic worked well for me, because I wanted to avoid the embarrassment of being singled out like that. Therefore, the reinforcement techniques she used were successful in keeping me out of trouble. However, I have found over the years that the constructs regarding operant conditioning are somewhat simplistic in nature, and do not deter many individuals from committing bad acts (as stated above regarding repeat offenders in the criminal justice system). Therefore, further research in this area may be needed to better address the behavioral needs of the adult population. The theory of behaviorism is made up of a variety of approaches that address the reasons why we react to stimuli in a particular manner, and how these reactions effect our overall functioning in the real world. These learning constructs explain how we intake and process information from a developmental standpoint, and aim to focus on how we can modify our behavior in order to be more successful in our lives, from both an internal and external standpoint. The culmination of theories contributed to the area of behaviorism by Thorndike, Watson, Pavlov, Bandura, Skinner, and many others have elicited a wide range of positive applications within the organizational world, as well as within the general constructs of modern day life. Based on these assertions, further research may aim to expand upon current behavioral Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective constructs, and address a wider range of situations that require a change in behavior, perhaps involving specific age groups and their needs. 15 Behaviorism: An In-Depth Perspective References Blackbourn, J. M. "Behaviorism." Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration. 2006. SAGE Publications. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from http://sage-ereference.com/edleadership/Article_n41.html. Blackbourn, J. M. "Thorndike, Edward." Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration. 2006. SAGE Publications. 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"Psychology in the 20th Century." 21st Century Psychology: A Reference Handbook. 2007. SAGE Publications. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from http://sage-ereference.com/psychology/Article_n2.html Kalling, T. (2003). Organization-internal transfer of knowledge and the role of motivation: a qualitative case study. Knowledge and Process Management, 10(2), 115-126. "Operant Conditioning." 21st Century Psychology: A Reference Handbook. 2007. SAGE Publications. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from http://sage-ereference.com/psychology/Article_n36.html Thompson, D. “Learning in the Life Cycle.” Encyclopedia of Applied Developmental Science. 2004. SAGE Publications. Retrieved April 18, 2009, from http://sage-ereference.com/applieddevscience/Article_n249.html Wasieleski, D.T. "Personality Theories, Behavioral." Encyclopedia of Counseling. 2008. SAGE Publications. Retrieved February 23, 2009, from http://sage-ereference.com/counseling/Article_n236.html 17