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Attitudes and Emotions PSY 750 Social Psychology Outline What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? Attitude Formation Consistency The Link Between Attitudes and Behavior What Are Emotions? Theories of Emotions Basic Emotions Circumplex Model of Emotion Attitudes Attitudes Global evaluations toward some object or issue Ideas that help determine actions Generalized like or dislike e.g., Evaluation of chocolate as good, prison as bad, and your new shoes as great 1 Dual Attitudes Implicit attitude Explicit attitude Automatic evaluative response e.g., Nonconscious negative attitude toward the elderly Conscious evaluative response e.g., Conscious positive attitude toward the elderly We may not be aware of all our own attitudes Dual Attitudes Different evaluations of the same attitude object: implicit versus explicit You may unconsciously dislike something that you consciously like e.g., Negative implicit attitude toward the elderly with a positive explicit attitude Why Do People Have Attitudes? Attitudes help us deal with complex world Attitudes are evaluations (like or dislike) Initial evaluations are immediate and unconscious We make rapid, unconscious judgments when we first encounter something new Researchers have not found anything that we look at with complete indifference Malcolm Gladwell’s book Blink dealt with this issue Attitudes are helpful in making choices Judgments are Faster Easier Better quality Attitude Formation Mere-exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968) The tendency for people to come to like things simply because they see or encounter them repeatedly e.g., Songs played often on the radio Exception: If you dislike something initially, repeated exposure will not change that attitude Also emerges for subliminal stimuli 2 Attitude Formation Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning A type of learning whereby a neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response Can develop a positive or negative attitude toward the conditioned stimulus Advertisers link celebrities and products Type of learning in which people are more likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded Less likely to repeat behaviors that have been punished Can develop a positive attitude toward something that is reinforced Social Learning Type of learning in which people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing them Less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing them Learn what attitudes are acceptable through observation Consistency We feel a strong need to be consistent Commonalities in theories about consistency Specify conditions required for consistency and inconsistency Assume inconsistency is unpleasant Specify conditions required to restore consistency Balance theory (P-O-X) explains that the relationships between person (P), other person (O), and attitude object (X) are balanced or unbalanced (Heider, 1946) Unbalanced relationships (inconsistent states) motivate people to achieve balanced (consistent states) relationships Celebrity endorsements of products I like Celebrity Y Celebrity Y likes Product Z I like Product Z Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive dissonance theory Inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort, leading people to rationalize their behavior or change their attitudes Refers to unpleasant state when attitude and behavior are inconsistent People attempt to bring their behavior into alignment with their attitudes Cognitive dissonance came from the finding that people actually changed their attitudes less when they received greater rewards than when they were not rewarded or rewarded only slightly 3 Cognitive Dissonance Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) Asked students to do a boring task and then asked them to lie to the next participant and say the task was fun either for a small payment ($1) or for a large payment ($20) Those rewarded highly and those who didn’t lie (a 3rd group) said that task was not enjoyable The small reward condition reported greater enjoyment for the task Cognitive Dissonance Theory Why does it occur? Insufficient Justification: Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one’s behavior when external justification is ‘insufficient’ Effort Justification When people suffer, work hard, or make sacrifices, they will try to convince themselves that it is worthwhile People seek to justify and rationalize any suffering or effort they have made Think about fraternity hazings, military boot camp, etc. How do these sometimes brutal initiation rites promote eventual group loyalty? Cognitive Dissonance Theory Greater choice is necessary for dissonance Otherwise, you know why you performed the behavior… Dissonance is marked by unpleasant arousal While people have desire to be consistent in their own private mind, they have an even stronger desire to be viewed as consistent by others Self-presentation plays a role in cognitive dissonance Dissonance is more likely if we perform a behavior publicly 4 Cognitive Dissonance Example Consider someone who buys an expensive car but discovers that it is not comfortable on long drives Dissonance exists between their belief that they bought a good car and their belief that a good car should be comfortable Dissonance could be eliminated by Deciding that comfort does not matter since the car is mainly used for short trips (reducing the importance of the dissonant belief) Focusing on the car’s strengths such as safety, appearance, and handling (thereby adding more consonant beliefs). Getting rid of the car…but this behavior is a lot harder to achieve than changing beliefs. Do Attitudes Predict Behaviors? Not always… For example, in recent news: Senator Ensign (Nevada) Governor Sanford (South Carolina) ‘Family values’ politicians caught in extramarital affairs Attitudes and Behavior Link between attitudes and behavior is weak Predictions of behavior based on attitudes is best when Measures of attitude are very specific Behaviors are aggregated over time and situations Attitudes are consciously prominent and influence thought regarding the choice Attitudes come to mind easily 5 Do Behaviors Influence Attitudes? Desegregating the schools is associated with: Vast majority now favors desegregation Increased interracial behaviors (and more positive attitudes) Doing a favor for someone usually increases your liking for that individual (Blanchard & Cook, 1976) “I must like him or I wouldn’t have done that favor for him” Do Behaviors Influence Attitudes? Role A set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave One of the most (in)famous social psychology studies asked… If people were placed in an unusual role, would their behavior and attitudes change? Role Playing – Stanford Prison Study (Zimbardo, 1971) There are parallels between the Stanford Prison Experiment and the degradation of Iraqi prisoners by some US military personnel “It’s not that we put bad apples in a good barrel. We put good apples in a bad barrel. The barrel corrupts anything that it touches” (Zimbardo, 2004) Stanford Prison Experiment 6 Emotions “Everyone knows what an emotion is, until asked to give a definition” (Fehr & Russell, 1984, p. 484) Emotion: a conscious evaluative reaction to some event (e.g., analogous to “weather”) Mood: a feeling that is not clearly linked to some event (e.g., analogous to “climate”) Affect: an automatic response that an event was good or bad (e.g., positive affect includes all good emotions) We are going to use emotion to refer to conscious experiences and affect to refer to automatic experiences The dominant theory of emotion in psychiatry and neuroscience is that we possess a discrete and limited set of basic emotions (Ekman, 1992; Panksepp, 1998; Tomkins, 1962, 1963) Each emotion is independent of the others in its behavioral, psychological, and physiological manifestations Each emotion arises from activation within unique neural pathways of the Central Nervous System What Emotions Do We Have? Basic Emotions Anger Surprise Disgust Happiness Fear Sadness Self-Conscious Emotions Shame Pride Guilt Envy Embarrassment Theories of emotion Two-factor theory 7 Why Do We Have Emotions? Emotions promote belongingness Emotions cause behavior (sort of) Forming bonds is pleasant and breaking them is generally unpleasant When emotions cause behavior, it is often because the person wants to change or escape their emotional state (e.g., sad people are more helpful because they think it will make them feel better; Manucia, Baumann, & Cialdini, 1984) Emotions guide thinking and learning (Anticipated) emotions guide decisions and choices When experiencing an emotional state, we tend to see the world in a more emotional way Affective forecasting is the ability to predict our emotional reactions to future events (Gilbert, Pinel, Wilson, Blumberg, & Wheatley, 1998) We are good at predicting which emotions we will experience but not how long they will last Emotions help and hurt decision making Risk-as-feelings hypothesis (Loewenstein, Weber, Hsee, & Welch, 2001) says that we react to risky situations based on the possible severity of negative outcomes and their likelihood Sexual arousal interferes with decision making (e.g., sexually aroused men were less concerned about contracting an STD from a high risk partner; Blanton & Gerrard, 1997) Positive emotions counteract negative emotions Broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 1998) suggests that positive emotions prepare us for later hard times (e.g., serve a buffering function) Basic Emotions: Animal Studies The basic emotions are based partially on animal research This is done by selectively stimulating neural pathways and observing subsequent behavior OR eliciting behaviors and measuring neural activity This approach has been informative but it is limited because researchers are forced to attribute affective states to animals based on their behaviors Affective behaviors, however, are neither sufficient nor necessary to characterize emotional states (Kagan, 2003; Panksepp, 1998) Animal and human studies have been inconsistent Animal studies have emphasized the role of subcortical and other primitive structures Human studies suggest that neocortical structures are important (Berridge, 2003) These differences could be due to the animal studies identifying areas associated with affective behavior rather than subjective experience Basic Emotions: Autonomic Activation and Facial Expressions Patterns of autonomic activation and facial innervation may be specific to each basic emotion (Ekman, 1992; Ekman, Levenson, & Friesen, 1983) …but support is inconsistent (e.g., autonomic specificity does not emerge consistently for disparate emotions) Facial expressions sometimes provide information about Neutral Anger Disgust Fear affect but the overlap is not strong enough to serve as a basis for classifying emotion (Camras, 1992; Fernandez-Dols & Ruiz-Belda, 1997) Joy Sadness Surprise 8 Basic Emotions: Developmental Studies Investigators have suggested that the rudiments of basic emotions should be present in infants or soon after birth (i.e., before the development of language or other cognitive mechanisms) This is important because dimensional models tend to emphasize cognition This research has the same limitation as much of the animal research (i.e., investigators are classifying the emotional responses of participants based on their affective behaviors rather than their subjective experiences) Summary of Basic Emotion Theory Findings from affective neuroscience have challenged basic emotion theory Neural foundations of basic emotions have not been established Peripheral physiological correlates of basic emotions have not been established Specific facial expressions for each emotion have not been identified Basic emotion theorists have largely explored the behavioral and expressive manifestations of emotion rather than the subjective or experiential components of emotion Subjective experience studies suggest that emotions arise in part from cognitive interpretations of core physiological experiences (Cacioppo et al., 2000; Russell, 2003) Dimensional Models of Emotion People have trouble assessing, discerning, and describing their own emotions Dimensional models of emotion regard affective experiences as a continuum of highly interrelated and often ambiguous states Affective experiences are commonly broken into two dimensions (Larsen & Diener, 1992) Positive affect vs. Negative affect (Watson et al., 1999) Tension vs. Energy (Thayer, 1989) Approach vs. Withdrawal (Lang, Bradley, & Cuthbert, 1998) Valence vs. Arousal (Russell, 1980) These models all suggest that affective states arise from two independent neuorphysiological systems 9 Arousal Circumplex Model of Emotion Valence Wheel of Emotions (Plutchik, 1980) 8 Basic Emotions Vertical dimension represents intensity Placement on the circle represents degrees of similarity among the emotions 4 pairs of opposites The emotions in the blank spaces are the primary mixed emotions (i.e., emotions that are combinations of two primary emotions) Wheel of Emotions (Plutchik, 1980) 10 Mood Regulation Goals of mood regulation Get into good mood (or bad mood) Get out of good mood (or bad mood) Prolong a good mood (or bad mood) How do people regulate their moods? (Thayer, Newman, & McClain, 1994) Do things that produce desired feelings Doing something to distract from current situation Altering level of arousal (e.g., exercising) Seeking social support Reframing the problem Humor Venting Conclusion Humans have more complex attitudes Pressure for consistency Emotions influence our behavior Dual attitudes We seek and ask for explanations 11