Download Operant Conditioning, cont`d

LEARNING
PERSPECTIVE
GENERAL
•Study of how humans learn has been dominated by
behaviorism
•Behaviorism developed simultaneously in Russia
and the US, becoming a major force in the
beginning of the 20th century.
•Traditional behaviorists believed that all
organisms learn the same way & that all learning
can be explained by the processes of classical and
operant conditioning.
LEARNING
PERSPECTIVE
GENERAL
* Psychologists within this perspective investigate
the way in which behavior changes. Usually
using laboratory experiments and often using
non-human animals.
•Alternative theories have challenged traditional
learning theory - learning is more than stimulusresponse.
–cognitive (innate knowledge, genetic)
–Biological (synaptic impulses)
–environmental factors (social)
LEARNING
PERSPECTIVE
Basic Assumptions
•Majority of behavior is learned from environment after birth.
-Behaviorism is the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate
•Psychology should investigate the laws and products of
learning
•Only observable behaviors should be studied if psychology
is to be objective
• Animals differ from humans only in the complexity of
their behavior.
– By studying the acquisition of behaviours in animals we can
apply it to humans.
LEARNING
PERSPECTIVE
Basic Assumptions
•There is an innate predisposition to learning
•Learning can take place in the absence of reinforcement
•The systematic study of learning can generate laws to
understand, predict and control behavior.
•Since behavior is determined by the environment, and since
we are a total of all our past learning experiences, freewill is
an illusion
LEARNING
Methodologies
• Studies usually are done in laboratory and
using animals. However such research has
been seen as both theoretically and
ethically contentious.
•Use experiments, observations, interviews
and verbal protocols. Mainly quantitative
research.
LEARNING
– Ivan Pavlov
– John Watson
- Albert Bandura
– Edward C. Tolman
– Wolfgang Kohler
– B. F. Skinner
THEORISTS
What is Learning?
Learning is relatively permanent change in
behavior that occurs because of experience.
Behaviorist view: Learning is the most
important influence on behavior
Basic Learning:
Involves associations between
environmental stimuli and responses.
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning aka Pavlovian or respondent
conditioning
A previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a
response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a
similar response.
or
New reflexes from old
Classical Conditioning cont’d
US (unconditioned stimulus)
An event or thing that elicits a response automatically or
“reflexively” (FOOD)
UR (unconditioned response)
Automatically produced response (SALIVATING
TO FOOD)
CS (conditioned stimulus)
Initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a
conditioned response after being associated
with an US (BELL)
CR (conditioned response)
Response that occurs after an CS is
associated with an US
(SALIVATING TO BELL)
Classical Conditioning cont’d
Principles of Classical Conditioning includes the following:
Extinction
Weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response.
Occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US
Spontaneous Recovery
Response can reappear
Higher-order conditioning
Neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through
association with an already established CS
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus that resembles the CS elicits the CR
Stimulus discrimination
Stimulus similar to the CS fails to elicit the CR
Classical Conditioning cont’d
What is learned in Classical Conditioning
CS must reliably predict the US
SO
CS must precede the US
When forming response, presentation of the neutral stimulus and
the presentation of the US should generally be less than a second
apart
Classical conditioning in real life
Learning to like
Pairing of product with music, attractive people, etc. in
marketing
Classical Conditioning cont’d
Real life cont’d
•Learning to fear
Learn to fear anything that elicits pain, surprise or
embarassment
•Phobia
An acquired, irrational fear of a specific object or situation
“Little Albert”
•Biologically primed to fear some things more easily
•Counterconditioning
Treatment for phobia – involves systematic desensitization
•Accounting for taste (taste aversion)
Learned when various foods or odors are paired with nauseainducing stimulus
Occurs after long delay – aversion to bad food has survival
value and probably biologically primed
Classical Conditioning cont’d
Real life cont’d
•Reacting to medical treatments
Nausea resulting from chemotherapy may generalize to many
aspects or even mental images of the medical situation
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning aka instrumental conditioning
Process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur,
depending on its consequences (reward or punishment).
Contrast:
Classical conditioning = reflexive
Operant conditioning = responsive
Operant Conditioning, cont’d
Edward Thorndike
Thorndike’s Law of Effect:
•Behaviors followed by pleasant consequences to recur
•Behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences to
not to recur
Skinner called his approach “radical behaviorism”
Argued:
•to understand behavior focus on the external causes of
an action and the action’s consequences (outside the
individual)
•In favor of determinism, said freewill is an illusion
•Environmental consequences may not “stamp in”
behavior but may determine the probability that an
action will occur
Operant Conditioning, cont’d
Consequences of Behavior
•Behavior leads to one of three consequences:
•Neutral consequences do not alter the response
•Reinforcement strengthens the response (makes it
more likely to occur)
•Punishment weakens the response (makes it less
likely to occur)
•Primary and Secondary Reinforcers and Punishers
•Primary Reinforcer: such as food, satisfying a biological
need
•Primary Punishers: such as extreme heat, are stimuli that
are inherently punishing
•Secondary Reinforcers and Secondary Punishers: acquire
their ability to influence behavior through association with
primary reinforcers and punishers. (learned, I.e. money,
awards, praise, applause)
•QUIZ
Classical Conditioning cont’d
1.
Five-year-old Margie is watching a storm from her window. A huge
bolt of lightning is followed by a tremendous thunderclap and
Margie jumps at the noise. This happens several more times. There
is a brief lull and then another lightning bolt. Margie jumps in
response to the bolt.
List the US, UR, CS & CR
2.
After he is bitten by a German shepherd Nick’s heart speeds up
whenever he sees a dog of that breed – and it also speeds up
whenever he sees a Labrador retriever. This is an example of what?
Supply the correct term for each situation:
3. A toddler is afraid of the bath, so her father puts just a little water in
the tub and gives the child a lollipop to suck on while she is being
washed. Soon, the little girl loses her fear of the bath.
4. A factory worker notices that his mouth waters whenever a bell
signals the beginning of his lunch break. One day the bell goes
haywire and rings every half hour. By the end of the day, the worker
has stopped salivating to the bell.
Operant Conditioning, cont’d
•Positive and Negative Reinforcers
POSITIVE = RECEIVING
NEGATIVE = TAKING AWAY
•Positive reinforcement: a reinforcement procedure in
which a response is followed by the presentation of, or
increase in intensity of, a reinforcing stimulus; as a
result, the response becomes stronger or more likely to
occur
•Negative reinforcement: a reinforcement procedure in
which a response is followed by the removal, delay or
decrease in intensity of an unpleasant stimulus; as a
result, the response becomes stronger and more likely
to occur.
Operant Conditioning, cont’d
•Positive and Negative Reinforcers
Operant Conditioning, cont’d
•Positive and Negative Punishment
•Positive Punishment: presenting something
unpleasant following an undesired response, making
the response less likely.
•Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant
following an undesired response, making the response
less likely.
Operant Conditioning, cont’d
•Positive and Negative Punishment
Review/Quiz
1.
2.
3.
What is a US?
What is a CR?
What is the difference between conditioned versus unconditioned
response?
4. Can fear be learned? Explain.
5. What is extinction? Give an example.
6. Identify two psychologists who are related to Cognitive learning.
Include brief information regarding their studies.
7. What is positive reinforcement?
8. What is negative reinforcement?
9. What is positive punishment? Give an example.
10. Draw a diagram of positive and negative reinforcers/punishment.
Operant Conditioning, cont’d
Principles of Operant Conditioning
•Extinction: weakening and eventual disappearance of
a learned response.
•In operant conditioning, it occurs when a response is
no longer followed by a reinforcer.
•Immediate vs Delayed Consequences:
•The sooner a reinforcer or punisher follows a response,
the greater its effect (house training, losing weight)
•Stimulus Generalization:
•Response to occur with similar reinforcers or
punishers
•Stimulus Discrimination:
•Response only occurs with particular stimulus
•Shaping***
•Rewarding of successive approximations
•Can be used to establish complex responses
Skinner Box
Operant Conditioning, cont’d
Principles of Operant Conditioning
•Learning on Schedule.
•Reinforcers are delivered according to different
schedules.
•Continuous reinforcement:
•Response rewarded EVERY time
•Intermittent (partial) reinforcement:
•Reinforcing only SOME responses
•Ratio Schedules
-Certain number of responses rewarded (every 5th)
•Interval schedules
-Certain amount of time since last reinforcement rewarded
•Intermittent reinforcement can be fixed or variable
(every 5th or 5th, then 8th, then 12th, etc.)
•Best way to get a response to continue is intermittent reinforcement!
Operant Conditioning in Real Life
•Behavior modification
•Application of conditioning techniques to teach new responses or
reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior.
Toilet training, breaking habits, incentive
•Pros and Cons of Punishment
•When punishment works
-Can eliminate self-destructive behavior if it is applied
immediately following the behavior
-Mild punishers are as effective as strong ones
-Consistency is more important than severity
Operant Conditioning in Real Life
•When Punishment Fails
•Often administered inappropriately or mindlessly
•(hitting or throwing things in a rage)
•Recipient often responds with anxiety, fear or rage
•Generalizes to entire situation
•Effectiveness often temporary
• depends heavily upon presence of punisher
•Most misbehavior is hard to punish immediately
•And during the delay there may be reinforcement of behavior
•Punishment conveys little information
•What NOT to do, but not what TO do.
•An action intended to punish may actually reinforce behavior
because it brings attention
•Attention-seeking
•Punishment should only be used when:
-Does not involve physical ABUSE (time-out, loss of
privileges)
-Is accompanied by info about correct behavior
-Followed by reinforcement of desired behaviors
Operant Conditioning in Real Life
•Problems with Rewards
•Extrinsic reinforcers
•Not inherently related to activity being reinforced (money, hugs)
•Intrinsic reinforcers
•Related to activity being reinforced (satisfaction, enjoyment)
•Undermining
• Extrinsic can undermine intrinsic reinforcers
•Destroying the pleasure of doing something for its own sake
•If we get “paid” for it, it becomes work so if not “paid” no work!
•Balance
•Short-term extrinsic reinforcers should be balanced with long-term
intrinsic reinforcers
The World as the Behaviorist Views it…
•B. F. Skinner
•Food delivered every 15 seconds
•Pigeons are often in motion which meant they
were doing something when the food was delivered
•This behavior was reinforced entirely by chance
•Within a short time 6 of 8 pigeons were doing
some sort of “ritual” to obtain food even though
food was delivered anyway
•So the birds were behaving superstitiously
•Coincidental reinforcement can create superstitions
The World as the Behaviorist Views it…
•Superstition
•Cross your fingers?
•Carry a lucky charm?
•Only use a certain pen during tests?
•Coincidental reinforcement can create superstitions
•Response may be intermittently reinforced, making it
resistant to extinction
•Superstitions may persist because attention may be paid
only to confirming evidence and they are reinforced by
agreement of others
The World as the Behaviorist Views it…
•Insight
•Learning or problem
solving that appears to
occur in a “flash”
•Wolfgang Kohler
•Chimpanzees & food
•Used objects
•Robert Epstein
•Pigeons & bananas
•Used objects
Myths & Realities
•Learning perspective helps explain how behaviors (perplexing, selfdefeating or even “natural”) can be the result of patterns of reinforcement
•Once understood these can be manipulated to alter behavior and
improve lives
•Biology places limits on what an organism can learn
•You cannot teach a fish to climb a ladder
•Skinner maintained that thoughts and feelings are themselves
behaviors that can be reinforced
or punished.
•We should manipulate the
environment to alter behavior
•Skinner’s “Baby Tender”
Homework:
• Think of a habit you would like to get rid of.
• Describe the habit in operant terms (what are the reinforcers,
punishers, etc.).
• Chart the occurrence of the undesired response over some
period of time.
• Then, using operant principles (such as punishment or rewards)
devise a behavioral plan to change your habit.
LEARNING
Learning and Behavior
Social Learning (imitation)
*Emphasizes behavior is learned and maintained
through interaction between individuals and
their environment
*Stongly influenced by
cognitive processes such as:
•Observations
•Expectations
•Perceptions
•Motivational beliefs
Social Learning
Emphasizes four phenomena:
Latent Learning
•Learning not immediately expressed in a response
•Remains “latent” until circumstance allow or require it
•Learning occurs without obvious reinforcement
•Involves gaining knowledge about responses and their
consequences
Observational learning
•Learning new responses by observing behavior of
another
•Modeling
•Vicarious conditioning
•Explains why children often imitate adults and television
•Film industry standards
Social Learning cont’d
Power of Perceptions
•Two can experience same & interpret differently
•Ie. Aggression and violent media
•Observing aggressive behavior in media may lead some, but
not all, viewers to be more aggressive
•BUT aggressive people may also be attracted to violent
media
•Cognitive processes of perception and interpretation, along with
other personality dispositions intervene between what we see, what
we learn and how we respond
Motivating Beliefs
•Our learned habits, beliefs and goals exert effects on
behavior
•Motivation
•Process within which causes movement toward or away
from an unpleasant situation
Social Learning cont’d
Motivating Beliefs cont’d
•Locus of control
•General expectation about whether the results of a
person’s actions are under one’s control or not
•Internal locus: under person’s control
(achievement & health benefits)
•External locus: beyond the person’s control
(victims)
•Self-fulfilling prophecy:
•Expectation comes true because the person holding
it acts in ways to bring it about.
•Explanatory style
•Characteristic way of explaining one’s successes &
failures
Social Learning cont’d
Motivating Beliefs cont’d
•Pessimistic explanatory style
•Associated with depression
•Attribute failures to internal, stable and global
characteristics
•Optimistic explanatory styles
•Associated with achievement, resilience and health
•Attribute failures to external and unstable factors
that are limited in impact
•Self-efficacy
•Belief a person is capable of producing desired
results
•Affects task performance, commitment to goals,
persistence, career choice, ability to handle stress.
Social Learning cont’d
Motivating Beliefs cont’d
•Self-efficacy acquired from:
•Experiences in mastering new skills & overcoming
obstacles
•Having successful and competent role models
•Getting feedback & encouragement from others
•Learning how to read and manage your own
physiological state
•People with high self-efficacy interpret failure as a
learning opportunity
•Self-efficacy related to goals
•Performance goals (Performing well in front of
others) works against self-efficacy
•Mastery goals (increasing one’s competence & skills)
feel greater intrinsic pleasure at accomplishment
The Gender Puzzle
Questions
1. Why are intersex births referred to as
emergencies?
2. Why is the practice of sexual reassignment an
issue according to the Intersex Society of North
America?
3. What is the process that determines our sexuality?
4. Why is, according to the article, gender more than
genetics?
5. After reading this article, what do you think would
be the most difficult part of raising an “intersex”
child?
6. What is the difference between ‘gender’ and ‘sex’?
Gender Stereotyping in
Children’s Items
Each group will investigate the extent of gender-role
stereotyping in:
•1: Children’s books and comics
•2: Television advertisements aimed at
children
•3: Television programs for children
(noncartoon)
•4: Children’s movies
•5: Television programs for children
(cartoon)
•6: Children’s toys
Gender Stereotyping in
Children’s Items
Each group will have a summary of findings
& a visual aid on the extent of gender-role stereotyping
• Spokesperson for each group will present summary of findings (at least
one person)
• Describe and evaluate the relative influence of environmental factors in
gender role acquisition
• Must have:
• Explanation of what shows the stereotype
• Examples gender stereotypes
• Examples of things that go AGAINST the stereotypes
• Examples of gender neutral items
• Be prepared for audience questions
Social Learning
Learning rules of gender
Sex refers to anatomical and physical attributes of males and
females
Gender refers to human attributes that are culturally and
psychologicall defined as more appropriate for one sex than the
other
•Gender identity - sense of being male or female
•Gender typing – how children learn everything associated with “masculine”
or “feminine” in culture (I.e. abilities, interests, behaviors)
Social Learning cont’d
Learning rules of gender cont’d
•Limitation of Behavioral explanations
•Early theories emphasized reinforcement and punishment assuming
the child is a passive participant in it’s upbringing (do whatever told)
•Gender typing begins at birth
•Children act out gender stereotypes despite parental influence
•Boys & girls segregate themselves into single-sex play groups
•Children select whom they will imitate
•Children unlikely to imitate same-sex parent’s
nontraditional behavior
•Reinforcement works only when certain people administer it
•Parents often reinforce children’s gender-typed preferences
•Biological psychologists believe gender-typed behavior has
biological basis/behaviorists believe gender-typing results from:
•Subtle and unintended reinforcers
•Development of children’s cognitive understanding of
gender
•Specific situations the child is in
Social Learning cont’d
Learning rules of gender cont’d
•Hidden reinforcers
•Subtle gender messages often communicated
without awareness
•Gender messages reflect adults’ belief and
expectations
•Gender Schemas
Mental network of knowledge, beliefs, metaphors, and expectations
about what it means to be male or female
& once a gender schema is developed, children change
their behavior to conform to it
•Are learned early in life
•Effect preference for playmates, toys and styles of play
•Seem to be more rigid for boys than for girls
•Can change throughout life as they accommodate to new
experiences.
Social Learning cont’d
Learning rules of gender cont’d
•Gender in Social Context
•Some situations evoke gender-typed behavior, others do not
•People adjust their behavior to situations
•Cross-gendered kinds of behaviors by middle age
•More likely to attribute behavior to sex when group contains only
one female (or male
•When women are not “tokens” (or small percentage) they are
perceived as being diverse
VIOLENCE RESEARCH
Calhoun’s Theory
•Is population density related to crime rate?
•In the 1960’s Calhoun raised rats in over-crowded or high-density
cages. He noticed several behavior not commonly found in normal
living conditions.
•These were remarkably similar to human behavior and
included:
•Formation of gangs
•Gang fights
•Theft
•Rape
•This research study attempts to confirm Calhoun’s theory for
humans; that population density is related to the crime rate.
VIOLENCE RESEARCH
Calhoun’s Theory
•Is population density related to crime rate?
•Design
•Independent variable: population density
•Dependent variable: crime rate
•Population density will be determined by
dividing a city’s population by its size in square
miles
•Crime rate will be determined by dividing the
number of reported crimes in a year’s time by
the population for that year.
•The cities:
•Data for a total of twenty-one cities will be used
•7 small, under 200,000
•7 medium, between 200,000 & 1,000,000
•7 large, over 1,000,000
VIOLENCE RESEARCH
Calhoun’s Theory
•Is population density related to crime rate?
•Reference material
•Latest update of the U.S. Census will be used
for the city’s population and square miles
•FBI’s Uniform Crime Report will be used for
the crime data
•Procedure:
•Team will decide which particular cities to use
•Team will decide what specific crime or category of
crimes to use: for example: murders or all felonies
•Discussion:
•Discuss your findings
•Discuss whether the statistics support the statement offered by
Calhoun
•How would inconsistencies of reporting by the police effect the
data?
•Graph your findings
Social Learning
Learning to be Moral
Morality involves kindness,
fairness, responsibility,
empathy, consideration,
conscience and good
intentions
Helping a friend cheat on an
exam may be “kind” but it is not
“right” therefore not “moral
•Moral person takes responsibility for their occasional lapses
of kindness and fair play; does not rely on excuses and lies
•Moral behavior rests on good intentions – one’s goal is primarily the
well-being of others
Visiting your 95-year-old aunt only because you hope to
inherit her estate is not a moral act.
Social Learning cont’d
Learning to be Moral cont’d
•Kohlberg’s theory on moral reasoning
•Preconventional morality
•Based on punishment, direction of authority and
desire to obey or disobey
•Conventional morality
•Based on trust, caring and loyalty
•Postconventional (“principled”) morality
•Based on principles of justice
•Limitations to Kohlberg’s theory
•Overlooks educational and cultural influence on moral
reasoning
•Sometimes confuses verbal sophistication with morality
•Moral reasoning is often inconsistent across situations
•Moral reasoning is often unrelated to moral behavior
Social Learning cont’d
Learning to be Moral cont’d
•Do men and women base moral decisions
on different bases?
•According to Gilligan:
•Women base on: compassions & care
•Men base on: abstract principles such as law & justice
•Research indicate people of both sexes use both bases
Social Learning cont’d
Learning to be Moral cont’d
•Moral Emotions
•Capacity for moral feelings seems to be inborn and develop from:
•Moral sense develops out of a child’s attachment to parents
•Empathy is the ability to feel badly about another person’s
unhappiness or pain and is essential for internalizing morality
•Shame a wound to the self concept at having done something wrong
•Guilt remorse for not living up to one’s own standards
Beware – children internalize moral standards as much
from how parents ACT as from what they TEACH
Social Learning cont’d
Learning to be Moral cont’d
•Parental techniques
•Power assertion correcting a child’s behavior using
punishment & authority
•Associated with lack of moral feeling & behavior in children,
poor self-control, an inability to internalize moral standards
•Induction appealing to child’s abilities, sense of
responsibility & feelings for others
•Associated with guilt when hurting others, internal standards
of right & wrong, confession rather than lying, accepting
responsibility & thoughtfulness
•Punishments accompanied by explanations, consistent discipline,
affection & high parental expectations are essential
•Moral expectations vary across cultures
•The most altruistic cultures have children assigned tasks such
as preparing food & caring for younger children
Evaluating the Learning Perspective
• Contributions
•Recognition that whether we know it or not:
•We all influence others
•We are influenced BY others
•Naming a behavior does not EXPLAIN it
•Wide range of practical applications
•Example: Setting goals is most likely to
improve performance when:
•The goal is specific
•The goal is challenging but achievable
•The goal is framed in terms of getting what
you WANT not what you do NOT WANT
Evaluating the Learning Perspective
• Contributions cont’d
•Applicable to solving personal and social problems
•Self-efficacy can be acquired and improved
•Health habits can be improved
•Raise self-efficacy
•Raise internal locus of control
•Provide positive models
Evaluating the Learning Perspective
• Limitations & Misuses
•Influence one influence of learning at a time but
behavior caused by complex interactions
•Environmental reductionism
•Attributes all behavior to situational factors
•Assumes if something is learned, it can
easily be changed
•Oversimplification in applying learning
techniques
•Assumes mechanisms of learning identical for
all species
Evaluating the Learning Perspective
• Issues under this heading
•Freewill vs. determinism
•Behavior is determined by the environment (Skinner)
•Reductionism vs. non-reductionism
•Behavior can be reduced to stimulus-response
associations
•Nature vs. nurture
•Behavior is learned
•Objectivity vs. subjectivity
•Only data worth having is objective data
Behavioral Therapy
1. What is the aim of behavioral therapy?
2. What are two techniques used in behavioral
therapy?
3. What researcher is important to the learning
approach to psychology?
4. What is one strength of the learning approach
to psychology?
5. What is one weakness to the learning
approach to psychology?
6. Briefly discuss the main view behind the
behavioral approach to psychology.
Behavioral Therapy
Behavior Treatments
1. Thoroughly describe one behavior therapy
treatment using classical conditioning
techniques. Be sure to include technique,
application, effectiveness & appropriateness.
2. Thoroughly describe one behavior therapy
treatment using operant conditioning
techniques. Be sure to include technique,
application, effectiveness & appropriateness.
Understanding OCD
Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
14.
15.
What are the treatments for OCD?
What is OCD?
What are some research theories on the causes of OCD?
How is an OCD patient supposed to solve their problems?
When CBT is used, what does it focus on for treatment?
Why is CBT important?
What is the difference between CBT and Psychoanalytic theory in
relation to OCD?
Describe the OCD cycle.
What are three common obsessions?
Why is there a delay in correct diagnosis of the disease?
What are two common compulsions?
What is one support group for OCD and how do you contact them?
What is the approximate number of people in the U.S. with OCD?
Why does Sheila Cavanaugh say that the television series “Monk”
is unrealistic?
“Little Emotional Albert”
J.B. Watson & R. Rayner: Experiment on conditioned
emotional responses
Questions
1. What are subsequent areas of study on this subject?
2. How do we learn our emotional reactions?
3. What were Watson’s goals for these experiments?
4. Discuss recent applications of this research.
5. What is the significance of the findings of this research?
6. What are Watson’s beliefs on emotion?
7. What are the criticisms of this research?
8. What are your own daily, practical applications of this research?
9. Explain the methods of this experiment.
10. After reading the article conclusion, what is YOUR conclusion?
11. What did Watson claim he could do in 1913?
“See Aggression…Do Aggression”
1.
2.
What are subsequent areas of study on this subject?
What are the goals of social psychologists regarding
aggression?
3. Briefly discuss the results of this experiment.
4. Discuss recent applications of this research.
5. Describe the most famous experiment Bandura
performed in the area of aggression
6. What subsequent research has been performed as a
result of this experiment?
7. What are the criticisms of this research?
8. What were Bandura’s four predictions regarding his
experiment?
9. According to social psychologists why is there such
difficulty in deciding on one definition for aggression?
10. After reading the article conclusion, what is YOUR
conclusion?
The Gender Puzzle
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
If changes are delayed there are major
psychological/social problems in the child.
It clouds the issue of what gender is and how it is
legally determined.
Testosterone in the womb determines our sexuality.
Gender is also defined by culturally specific roles
and responsibilities for females and males that are
learned, may change over time and vary among
societies.
Answers will vary (opinion question).
“Sex” deals with biological (anatomical) differences
& “gender” deals with attitudes about what is
masculine & feminine.
LEARNING
STRENGTHS
•Experimental methodology
•Has many practical
applications in education,
therapy, advertising.
STRENGTHS
& LIMITATIONS
LIMITATIONS
• Behaviorists tend to ignore innate
biological aspects.
• Cognitive psych: behaviorism ignores
important mental processes involved in
learning
• Lack of ecological validity
• Social learning has
overcome weaknesses of • Use of animals: there is a biologically
the traditional
qualitative difference between humans
behaviorism.
and other animals.
• Explains great variety of • Humanists: behaviorism rejects
phenomena using a few
conscious mental experience
simple principles
• Psychoanalysis: behaviorism too
simplistic, do not take into account the
unconscious motives of behavior.
QUIZ
Behavioral Therapy
Classical condition techniques
1. Thoroughly describe one behavior therapy
treatment using classical conditioning
techniques. Be sure to include technique,
application, effectiveness & appropriateness.