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Download Irene Wang Chuanling Chen David Dai 04/30/12 Period 2 Unit 6
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Irene Wang Chuanling Chen David Dai 04/30/12 Period 2 Unit 6 Learning – (Pages 215-227) Key Terms Learning – the way an organism’s behavior is permanently changed because of experience Habituation – when an organism is repeatedly exposed to a stimulus, its response will eventually decrease Associative Learning – a certain learning that some events happen together and sometimes, the events can be two stimuli (classical conditioning) while it could be a response with consequences (operant conditioning) Classical Conditioning – a way a learning where one is able to connect two or more stimuli together to anticipate events Behaviorism – how one views (1) psychology to be an objective science in which it is (2) the study of behavior with no connection to mental processes Unconditioned Response (UR) – Classical Conditioning – the unlearned, natural response to an unconditioned stimulus (US) - Example: Salivation when there is food in the mouth Unconditioned Stimulus (US) – Classical Conditioning – a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response - (In previous example): Food Conditioned Response (CR) – Classical Conditioning – how one has learned to respond to a previously neutral but has now been conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Classical Conditioning – a stimulus that is originally irrelevant that will eventually trigger a conditioned response (CR) after relating to the unconditioned stimulus (US) Acquisition – Classical Conditioning – how one connects the neutral stimulus to the unconditioned stimulus in order to make the neutral stimulus to trigger the conditioned response -- Operant Conditioning – to further strengthen the already strengthened response Higher-Order Conditioning – when the conditioned stimulus is then paired with a new neutral stimulus to make a second, weaker conditioned stimulus Extinction – Classical Conditioning – how a conditioned response eventually lessen when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow the conditioned stimulus -- Operant Conditioning – happens when a response is no longer strengthened Spontaneous Recovery – when a conditioned response reappears after a pause in which it had disappeared from before Generalization – when a response is conditioned, other stimuli similar to the conditioned response will trigger similar responses as well Discrimination – when one can distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal any unconditioned stimulus Learned Helplessness – the hopelessness that an animal or human being learns and experiences when they cannot avoid dislikeable events Key People Ivan Pavlov His experiments all reflect on classical conditioning, as he had discovered it as well Humans are able to learn more about different behaviors and emotions through his classical conditioning Classical Conditioning was believed to be a basic type of learning His discovery also allowed another discovery: “Many other responses to many other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms” Classical Conditioning is a way that organisms learn to adapt to their environment He showed us that learning can be studied objectively instead of subjectively John B. Watson Believes that psychology is also to study how organisms respond to stimuli in their environments Believes that psychology should be an objective science that is based on observable behavior which is known as behaviorism John Garcia Proposed the idea that associations can be equally learned well His experiment with rats shown results of taste aversion, which is how it would be difficult for one to eat a specific food again after associating a bad taste to the food Key Experiments Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning With a Dog John B. Watson’s “Little Albert” Experiment - Tests to see if Albert will be afraid of a certain animal (rat, rabbit) after hearing and associating the scary sound of a picket that is struck John Garcia’s Taste Aversion Experiment With a Rat - The rat immediately avoided drinking the water that contained radiation chemicals as it had tasted like plastic to them in which led them to nausea and vomiting B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was a college English major and an aspiring writer who, seeking a new direction, entered graduate school in psychology. He went on to become modern behaviorism’s most influential and controversial figure. Skinner’s work elaborated what psychologist Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) called the law of effect: Rewarded behavior is likely to recur. B. F. Skinner “I am sometimes asked, ‘Do you think of yourself as you think of the organisms you study?’ The answer is yes. So far as I know, my behavior at any given moment has been nothing more than the product of my genetic endowment, my personal history, and the current setting” (1983). - key experiments Connections to other units In Unit 7B, encounter more striking evidence of cognitive abilities in solving problems and in using language. respondent behavior: behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus operant conditioning: a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. operant behavior: behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences law of effect: Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely operant chamber: in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. discriminative stimulus: in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforceme nt). reinforcer: in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Example: Positive reinforcement A heat lamp positively reinforces this Taronga Zoo meerkat’s behavior during a cold snap in Sydney, Australia negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need conditioned reinforce(also called secondary reinforcers): a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. partial (intermittent) reinforcement: reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. fixed-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. variable-ratio schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. fixed-interval schedule: in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. punishment: an event that decreases the behavior that it follows cognitive map: a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. latent learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. insight: a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment biofeedback: a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. Trick to remember observational learning: learning by observing others. Also called social learning. modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. mirror neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy. prosocial behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. Key Experiment: Cognitive imitation When Monkey A (below left) sees Monkey B touch four pictures on a display screen in a certain order to gain a banana, Monkey A learns to imitate that order, even when shown a different configuration We can glimpse the roots of observational learning in other species. Rats, pigeons, crows, and gorillas all observe others and learn Learning from observation This 14-month-old boy in Andrew Meltzoff’s laboratory is imitating behavior he has seen on TV. In the top photo the infant leans forward and carefully watches the adult pull apart a toy. In the middle photo he has been given the toy. In the bottom photo he pulls the toy apart, imitating what he has seen the adult do. The famous Bobo doll experiment Notice how the children’s actions directly imitate the adult’s. Bandura believes part of the answer is reinforcements and punishments— those received by the model as well as by the imitator. By watching, we learn to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situations like those we are observing. We are especially likely to imitate people we perceive as similar to ourselves, as successful, or as admirable. A model player Los Angeles Galaxy soccer star David Beckham provided a powerful role model for aspiring players at this youth soccer clinic in Harlem. As the sixteenth-century proverb states, “Example is better than precept.” Violence viewing leads to violent play Research has shown that viewing media violence does lead to increased expression of aggression in the viewers, as with these boys imitating pro wrestlers. Connection: This unit had connected with Unit 8 the motivation and emotion, through the observation by the model, the children had learning the behavior they observed, things like the child beating the toy is directly imitate the adult’s. and the child had show the emotion with angry when he beating the toy. And we don’t what is their motivation. Memory Trick: -Children don’t what to do -Children see, children do-Children imitate their idol.