Download Irene Wang Chuanling Chen David Dai 04/30/12 Period 2 Unit 6

Irene Wang
Chuanling Chen
David Dai
04/30/12
Period 2
Unit 6 Learning – (Pages 215-227)
Key Terms
Learning – the way an organism’s behavior is permanently changed because of
experience
Habituation – when an organism is repeatedly exposed to a stimulus, its response will
eventually decrease
Associative Learning – a certain learning that some events happen together and
sometimes, the events can be two stimuli (classical conditioning) while it could be a
response with consequences (operant conditioning)
Classical Conditioning – a way a learning where one is able to connect two or more
stimuli together to anticipate events
Behaviorism – how one views (1) psychology to be an objective science in which it is
(2) the study of behavior with no connection to mental processes
Unconditioned Response (UR) – Classical Conditioning – the unlearned, natural
response to an unconditioned stimulus (US)
- Example: Salivation when there is food in the mouth
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) – Classical Conditioning – a stimulus that naturally and
automatically triggers a response
- (In previous example): Food
Conditioned Response (CR) – Classical Conditioning – how one has learned to respond
to a previously neutral but has now been conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – Classical Conditioning – a stimulus that is originally
irrelevant that will eventually trigger a conditioned response (CR) after relating to the
unconditioned stimulus (US)
Acquisition – Classical Conditioning – how one connects the neutral stimulus to the
unconditioned stimulus in order to make the neutral stimulus to trigger the conditioned
response -- Operant Conditioning – to further strengthen the already strengthened
response
Higher-Order Conditioning – when the conditioned stimulus is then paired with a new
neutral stimulus to make a second, weaker conditioned stimulus
Extinction – Classical Conditioning – how a conditioned response eventually lessen
when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow the conditioned stimulus
-- Operant Conditioning – happens when a response is no longer strengthened
Spontaneous Recovery – when a conditioned response reappears after a pause in which
it had disappeared from before
Generalization – when a response is conditioned, other stimuli similar to the conditioned
response will trigger similar responses as well
Discrimination – when one can distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other
stimuli that do not signal any unconditioned stimulus
Learned Helplessness – the hopelessness that an animal or human being learns and
experiences when they cannot avoid dislikeable events
Key People
Ivan Pavlov
 His experiments all reflect on classical conditioning, as he had discovered it as
well
 Humans are able to learn more about different behaviors and emotions through his
classical conditioning
 Classical Conditioning was believed to be a basic type of learning
 His discovery also allowed another discovery: “Many other responses to many
other stimuli can be classically conditioned in many other organisms”
 Classical Conditioning is a way that organisms learn to adapt to their environment
 He showed us that learning can be studied objectively instead of subjectively
John B. Watson
 Believes that psychology is also to study how organisms respond to stimuli in
their environments
 Believes that psychology should be an objective science that is based on
observable behavior which is known as behaviorism
John Garcia
 Proposed the idea that associations can be equally learned well
 His experiment with rats shown results of taste aversion, which is how it would be
difficult for one to eat a specific food again after associating a bad taste to the
food
Key Experiments
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
With a Dog
John B. Watson’s “Little Albert” Experiment
-
Tests to see if Albert will be afraid of a certain
animal (rat, rabbit) after hearing and
associating the scary sound of a picket that is
struck
John Garcia’s Taste Aversion Experiment
With a Rat
-
The rat immediately avoided drinking
the water that contained radiation
chemicals as it had tasted like plastic
to them in which led them to nausea
and vomiting
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was a college
English major and an aspiring writer who,
seeking a new direction, entered graduate
school in psychology. He went on to become
modern behaviorism’s most influential and
controversial figure. Skinner’s work elaborated
what psychologist Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) called the law of effect:
Rewarded behavior is likely to recur.
B. F. Skinner “I am sometimes asked, ‘Do you think of yourself as you think of
the organisms you study?’ The answer is yes. So far as I know, my behavior at
any given moment has been nothing more than the product of my genetic
endowment, my personal history, and the current setting” (1983).
- key experiments
Connections to other units
In Unit 7B, encounter more striking evidence of
cognitive abilities in solving problems and in using language.
respondent behavior: behavior that occurs as an automatic
response to some stimulus
operant conditioning: a type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed
by a punisher.
operant behavior: behavior that operates on the environment,
producing consequences
law of effect: Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by
favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors
followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
operant chamber: in operant conditioning research, a chamber
(also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an
animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer;
attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key
pecking.
shaping: an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers
guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the
desired behavior.
discriminative stimulus: in operant conditioning, a stimulus
that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in
contrast to related stimuli not associated with
reinforceme
nt).
reinforcer: in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it
follows.
positive reinforcement: increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli,
such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a
response, strengthens the response.
Example: Positive reinforcement A heat lamp positively reinforces this
Taronga Zoo meerkat’s behavior during a cold snap in Sydney, Australia
negative reinforcement: increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing
negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when
removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative
reinforcement is not punishment.)
primary reinforcer: an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies
a biological need
conditioned reinforce(also called secondary reinforcers): a stimulus that
gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also
known as a secondary reinforcer.
continuous reinforcement: reinforcing the desired response every time it
occurs.
partial (intermittent)
reinforcement: reinforcing a
response only part of the time;
results in slower acquisition of a
response but much greater
resistance to extinction than does
continuous reinforcement.
fixed-ratio schedule: in operant
conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response
only after a specified number of
responses.
variable-ratio schedule: in
operant conditioning, a
reinforcement schedule that
reinforces a response after an
unpredictable number of responses.
fixed-interval schedule: in
operant conditioning, a
reinforcement schedule that
reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
punishment: an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
cognitive map: a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For
example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive
map of it.
latent learning: learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an
incentive to demonstrate it.
insight: a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it
contrasts with strategy-based solutions
intrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own
sake.
extrinsic motivation: a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised
rewards or avoid threatened punishment
biofeedback: a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding
back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure
or muscle tension.
Trick to remember
observational learning: learning by observing others. Also called social
learning.
modeling: the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
mirror neurons: frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain
actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of
another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.
prosocial behavior: positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of
antisocial behavior.
Key Experiment:
Cognitive imitation When Monkey A (below left) sees Monkey B touch four
pictures on a display screen in a certain order to gain a banana, Monkey A
learns to imitate that order, even when shown a different configuration
We can glimpse the roots of observational learning in other species. Rats,
pigeons, crows, and gorillas all observe others and learn
Learning from observation This 14-month-old boy in Andrew Meltzoff’s
laboratory is imitating behavior he has seen on
TV. In the top photo the infant leans forward
and carefully watches the adult pull apart a toy.
In the middle photo he has been given the toy.
In the bottom photo he pulls the toy apart,
imitating what he has seen the adult do.
The famous Bobo doll experiment Notice
how the children’s actions directly imitate the
adult’s.
Bandura believes part of the answer is reinforcements and punishments—
those received by the model as well as by the imitator. By watching, we learn
to anticipate a behavior’s consequences in situations like those we are
observing. We are especially likely to imitate people we perceive as similar to
ourselves, as successful, or as admirable.
A model player Los Angeles
Galaxy soccer star David
Beckham provided a powerful
role model for aspiring players at
this youth soccer clinic in
Harlem. As the sixteenth-century
proverb states, “Example is
better than precept.”
Violence viewing leads to violent play
Research has shown that viewing media
violence does lead to increased expression
of aggression in the viewers, as with these
boys imitating pro wrestlers.
Connection:
This unit had connected with Unit 8 the
motivation and emotion, through the
observation by the model, the children had
learning the behavior they observed,
things like the child beating the toy is
directly imitate the adult’s. and the child had show the emotion with angry
when he beating the toy. And we don’t what is their motivation.
Memory Trick:
-Children don’t what to do -Children see, children do-Children imitate
their idol.