Download Lesson 1: Attributes of Learning and Classical Conditioning

Lesson 1: Attributes of Learning and Classical Conditioning
I. Attributes of learning
A. Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of
experience.
B. Distinction between learning and performance
1. Performance is an exhibited behavior
2. Learning can be inferred from performance, but performance is not always an accurate measure of
learning
II. Classical conditioning
A. Definitions
1. Classical conditioning is defined as learning that takes place when an originally neutral stimulus comes
to produce a conditioned response because of its association with an unconditioned stimulus.
2. An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) reflexively produces an unconditioned response (UCR), even in the
absence of previous training.
3. A conditioned stimulus (CS) is a stimulus that has come to elicit a conditioned response (CR)
because the organism associates the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus.
B. Acquisition
1. Involves repeated pairings of the CS and the UCS.
2. Paradigms:
a. Trace conditioning occurs when the CS is presented and terminated before the presentation of the UCS.
Conditioning is often effective when the interval between the presentation of the CS and the UCS is about a
half second.
b. Delay conditioning occurs when the CS is presented and continues at least until the UCS is presented.
c. Simultaneous conditioning occurs when the CS and the UCS are presented and terminated at the
same time.
d. Backward conditioning occurs when the UCS is presented before the CS.
e. Temporal conditioning occurs when the nominal CS is a fixed period of time between presentations of
the UCS.
C. Extinction
1. A procedure that leads to the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR
2. Involves repeatedly presenting the CS without paining it with the UCS
D. Spontaneous recovery occurs when a previously extinguished CR suddenly reappears after a period of
no training
Lesson 2: Classical Conditioning (continued)
l. Classical conditioning
A. Generalization
1. Occurs when a CR occurs to stimuli that are similar to the CS, even though these stimuli may
never have been associated with the UCS
2. The more similar the stimuli are the CS, the greater the likelihood of generalization. [replace
with gradient]
B. Discrimination
1. Occurs when stimuli similar to the CS do not produce a CR
2. The more similar the stimuli are to the CS, the greater the difficulty of discrimination.
C. Famous demonstrations of classical conditioning
1. Ivan Pavlov and his dogs
a. The sound of a metronome (CS) was paired with meat powder (UCS) until the CS alone
produced salivation (CR)
b. This demonstration established the basic components of classical conditioning: acquisition,
extinction, generalization, and discrimination
2. John Watson and Little Albert
a. The sight of a white rat (CS) was paired with loud noise (UCS) until the CS alone produced
crying and other responses indicative of fear (CR)
b. This demonstration showed that human emotional responses could develop as a result of
classical conditioning
D. Theoretical models of classical conditioning
1. Contiguity model
a. Argues conditioning will occur whenever a CS and a UCS are paired
b. Based on the work of Pavlov
2.
a.
b.
c.
Contingency model
Argues the CS must reliably predict the USC for conditioning to occur
Based on the work of Robert Rescorla and Allen Wagner
This model is supported by phenomena like blocking, demonstrated by Leon Kamin (1969)
Lesson 3: Instrumental Learning and Operant Conditioning
I. Instrumental learning
A. Means that an organism's behavior is instrumental in producing an environmental change that in turn
affects the organism's behavior
B. Based on the work of Edward L. Thorndike (1974-1949)
C. The fundamental principle is Thorndike's Law of Effect, which states behaviors are encouraged when
they are followed by rewarding consequences and discouraged when they are followed by punishing
consequences
II. Operant conditioning
A. The system of instrumental learning developed by B. F. Skinner (1904-1990). Operant conditioning can
be used to influence the likelihood of an organism's response by controlling the consequences of the
response.
B. Shaping
1. A technique whereby successive approximations of a behavior are reinforced. In other words, behaviors
that come closer and closer to the final target behavior are reinforced by the training.
2. This technique makes it possible to operantly condition behaviors that are not likely to happen otherwise.
C. Discriminative stimulus (SD)
1. Defined as a stimulus that signals or informs the organism of the availability of reward or punishment. For
example, the ring of a telephone is a discriminative stimulus which informs a person that the behavior of
answering is likely to be met with the reward of a conversation. Similarly, the presence of a scowl on a
parent's face signals a teenager that the behavior of asking a favor of the parent is likely to be met with
rejection.
2. These stimuli are valuable for determining when a particular behavior will occur. Phones are only
answered when they ring and favors are generally not asked when a parent is scowling.
D. Training procedures
1. Positive reinforcement occurs when an appetitive (desired) stimulus follows a behavior. This procedure
makes the behavior more likely to recur. For example, if a child is given praise (appetitive stimulus) for
picking up a toy (behavior), the child will be more likely to pick up the toy in the future.
2. Negative reinforcement occurs when an aversive (not desired) stimulus is prevented or eliminated
following a behavior. This procedure makes the behavior more likely to recur. For example, if a child takes
out the garbage (behavior) and her mother stops nagging (aversive stimulus), the child will be more likely to
take out the garbage in the future.
3. Punishment occurs when an aversive (not desired) stimulus follows a behavior. In real life results are
varied and controversial, but this procedure theoretically makes the behavior less likely to recur. For
example, if a child has his hand slapped (aversive stimulus) for pulling a dog's tail (behavior), the child will
be less likely to pull the dog's tail in the future.
4. Omission training occurs when an appetitive (desired) stimulus is prevented or eliminated following a
behavior. This procedure makes the behavior less likely to recur. For example, if a child grabs a toy from her
sibling (behavior) and her mother denies the child access to television (appetitive stimulus) for a period of
time, the child will be less likely to grab toys in the future.
E. Types of reinforcers
1. Primary reinforcers are defined as biologically relevant natural events that are capable of increasing the
probability of behaviors that produce them. Water is a primary reinforcer for a thirsty person.
2. A secondary (or conditioned) reinforcer is a neutral event that has taken on the reinforcing properties of
a primary reinforcer by being associated with it. Money is a secondary reinforcer because people have
learned that it can be used to purchase a variety of primary reinforcers.
F. Chaining is an operant technique whereby the organism is required to perform several different
behaviors, in sequence, before the reward is administered. Complex strings of behaviors can be maintained
by the use of a single reward at the end of the sequence.
G. Extinction occurs in operant conditioning when a behavior no longer produces a reinforcer. Under these
conditions the behavior eventually ceases.
Lesson 4: Operant Conditioning (continued)
I. Schedules of reinforcement involve the circumstances under which reinforcements are delivered.
A. Continuous reinforcement
1. Every target response is rewarded
2. Produces behavior that extinguishes easily
B. Continuous reinforcement (or partial) reinforcement means that only some correct responses are
rewarded.
1. Fixed-ratio (FR)
a. A fixed number of target responses must be made before reward is given.
b. For example, a "But 10, get 1 free" offer maintains buying behavior on an FR schedule.
c. This schedule produces a "pause and run" response pattern.
2. Variable-ratio (VR)
a. The number of target responses required for reward changes, and the organism never knows how many
responses are required for the next reward.
b. This is the gambler's schedule. For example, one never knows how many lottery tickets must be bought
before winning.
c. This schedule produces a consistent, high rate of responding that is very resistant to extinction.
3. Fixed-interval (FI)
a. The first target response after a fixed interval of time has passed is rewarded.
b. For example, a student who studies every Thursday evening for the regularly scheduled Friday quiz in his
psychology class will be rewarded with a good grade. The interval is one week.
c. Most of the responses on a FI schedule occur at the end of the interval and this pattern of responding is
called "scalloping."
4. Variable-interval (VI)
a. Similar to the FI schedule, except that the length of the interval of time changes after each trial, and the
organism has no way of knowing how long the next interval will be.
b. For example, a student in a class where surprise quizzes are given on random days is rewarded for
studying on a VI schedule.
c. Responding on a VI schedule tends to be steady and at a moderate rate.
5. Typical response patterns for the intermittent schedules of reinforcement:
II. Aversive conditioning is training with stimuli not desired by the organism.
A. Punishment (see Lesson 3.II.D.3)
1. The use of punishment is controversial, and its effects vary widely.
2. When it works, effective punishment is often intense and immediate.
3. Punishment may produce only temporary suppression of the undesired behavior or lead to aggressive
behavior, among other things.
B. Negative reinforcement (see Lesson 3.II.D.2) includes two subtypes:
1. Escape occurs when a behavior terminates an aversive event. For example, a person can escape a
headache (aversive event) by taking an aspirin (behavior). This negatively reinforces aspirin taking and
makes this behavior more likely in the future.
2. Avoidance occurs when a behavior happens in the presence of a signal that informs the organism that an
aversive event is likely. For example, a person can avoid indigestion (aversive event) by taking an antacid
(behavior) before eating a spicy dinner (signal that indigestion is likely). This negatively reinforces antacid
taking and makes this behavior more likely in the future.
C. Learned helplessness, a phenomenon described by Martin Seligman
1. Defined as a decrease in responding that occurs after exposure to uncontrollable aversive events. For
example, dogs subjected to uncontrollable electric shocks are later unable to learn a routine escape task.
2. Seligman believes learned helplessness helps explain things such as depression and varying levels of job
performance.
D. Practical uses of operant conditioning are numerous and include:
1. Educational strategies
2. Animal training
3. Behavior modification techniques
4. Token economies
5. Behavior therapy for psychological disorders
Lesson 5: Cognitive Learning and the Role of Biology and Culture in Learning
I. Cognitive learning emphasizes the role of mental processes.
A. Insight learning, described by Wolfgang Kohler in The Mentality of Apes, is the sudden awareness of
the solution of a problem. For example, the chimp Sultan seemed to suddenly grasp the need to use a short
stick to reach a longer stick which in turn could be used to reach some fruit.
B. Latent learning, described by Edward Tolman (1886-1959), is defined as learning in the absence of
apparent reward. For example, rats given an opportunity to explore a maze will develop
a cognitive map, even when there is neither reward nor motivation for learning. Later, when reward is
available, rats that have had the opportunity to explore will perform better than those that have not had that
opportunity
C. Observational learning, described by Albert Bandura, is defined as learning that takes place by
watching another individual model the learning task. This has important implications for humans, ranging
from the potential negative effects of violent television programming to the potential positive effects of
providing children with appropriate role models.
II. The role of biology in learning
A. Learning is adaptive in that it enhances an individual's ability to survive.
B. Biological constraints on learning including innate predispositions influence the likelihood that
conditioning can occur.
1. Rats are predisposed to learn taste aversions, as demonstrated by Garcia and Koelling (1966).
2. Breland and Breland (1961) reported that it was difficult to train a pig (but not a raccoon) to put a wooden
disk into a piggy bank. Instinctive drift occurs when an organism's instinctive behavior makes it easier or
harder to establish a learned response than it would be if the instinctive behavior were not present.
III. Culture also influences the kind of learning that can occur, and the environment may limit learning
opportunities.