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Transcript
Chapter One Handout: Introduction/Methods From the PowerPoint Presentation: Freud’s Psychosexual Stages & Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages Age Freud Erikson B-1year (Infancy) 1-3 year (Toddler) 3-6 year (Early childhood) 6-12 year (Middle childhood) Teenage Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood Oral: The mouth is the focus of stimulation and interaction; feeding and weaning are central. Anal: The anus is the focus of stimulation and interaction; elimination and toilet training are central. Phallic: The genitals (penis, clitoris, and vagina) are the focus of stimulation; gender role and moral development are central. Latency: A period of suspended sexual activity; energies shift to physical and intellectual activities. Genital The genitals are the focus of stimulation with the onset of puberty; mature sexual relationships develop. Trust vs. Mistrust: learn that others will care for their basic needs Genital continues Intimacy vs. Isolation: forming adult loving relationships Generativity vs. Stagnation: leaving a legacy for the next generation Integrity vs. Despair: accepting their lives as they have lived them Genital continues Genital continues Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: learn to be self-sufficient Initiative vs. Guilt: learn to initiate interactions with others Industry vs. Inferiority: learning they are competent beings Identity vs. Role Diffusion: learning who they are Illustration of Classical Conditioning BEFORE CONDITIONING: (A) Place a nipple in baby's mouth: Touch of nipple (UCS) — — — —elicits — — — — — > Sucking reflex (UCR) (B) Show baby a bottle with a nipple: Sight of bottle with nipple (NS) — — — — — —elicits — — — — — > No sucking DURING CONDITIONING: (C) Show baby the a bottle and then place a nipple in baby's mouth. Repeat a number of times: NS (paired with) UCS UCS of nipple in mouth => UCR of sucking Learning occurs! Infant learns that the sight of the bottle predicts a nipple being placed in it’s mouth and then becomes conditioned to start sucking when he/she sees the bottle before anything is even placed in his/her mouth! AFTER CONDITIONING (D) Show baby the bottle with nipple: Sight of bottle with nipple (CS)— — — —elicits — — — — — > Sucking reflex (CR) UCS=Unconditioned Stimulus CS=Conditioned Stimulus UCR=Unconditioned Response CR=Conditioned Response NS=Neutral Stimulus Operant Conditioning Rate of Response Delivered Withdrawn Response leads stimulus to be Increases Decreases Positive reinforcement (Increases behavior by delivering a desired stimulus) Example: Infant says, "cookie” Mother gives praise Infant says “cookie” more Negative reinforcement (Increases behavior by removing an aversive stimulus) Example: Child cleans messy room Parent stops "nagging" Child cleans room more Stage Sensorimotor b-2 yrs Preoperational 2-6 years Concrete Operational 7-12 years Formal operational 12 years + Punishment (Decreases behavior by delivering an aversive stimulus) Example: Toddler throws toys Father yells, "Stop it" Toddler throws toys less Punishment (Decreases behavior by removing a desired stimulus) Example: Teenager out past curfew Parent grounds teenager Teenagers out past curfew less Piaget’s Cognitive Development Description -exploration through direct sensory and motor contact. Object Permanence and separation anxiety develop -use of symbols (words/images) to represent objects but does not reason logically. Pretend Play. Egocentric. -logical thought about concrete objects. Passes conservation tasks -can reason about abstract concepts and think hypothetically Theories: Core Concepts, Continuity, Differences & Nature/Nurture Theory Core Concepts Continuity Differences Psychoanalytic Emphasizes internal conflicts, Discontinuous Deficits emerge when mostly unconscious, which (stages) stages are not positively usually pit sexual or aggressive resolved instincts against Behaviorism Cognitive Sociocultural environmental obstacles to their expression. Emphasizes learning, through stimulus substitution, patterns of reward and punishment, and modeling Emphasizes mechanisms through which people receive, store, retrieve, and otherwise process information. Emphasizes the influence of Society and Culture and learning as an interactive process Nature/Nurture More nature (innate urges etc.) Continuous Deficits are learned and can be unlearned More nurture Discontinuous (Piaget), Continuous (InfoProcessing) Stages depend on the culture/society Although children learn actively, deficits emerge if the environment doesn’t support learning More nature (brain) Deficits occur when one is unable to function in whatever culture you live in More nurture Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory: 0. Individual: sex age health etc. 1. Microsystem: Within this system the person has direct interactions with parents, teachers, peers, and others. 2. Mesosystem: This system involves the linkages between microsystems such as family and school, and relationships between students and peers. 3. Exosystem: This system works when settings in which a child does not have an active role influence the student’s experiences. 4. Macrosystem: This system involves the broader culture in which students and teachers live. 5. Chronosystem: The sociohistorical conditions of a student’s development. Approach Cross-Sectional Developmental Methods Description Advantages Disadvantages Comparison of children of different ages at the same point in time. Requires less time; less costly than longitudinal study. Cannot study individual patterns of development or the stability of traits; subject to cohort effects Longitudinal Repeated testing of the same group of children over an extended period of time. Can examine the stability of characteristics. Requires a significant investment of time and resources; problems with participant attrition; can have age-history confound. Cross-Sequential Observation of children of different ages over an extended period of time. Avoids cohort and agehistory confound effects Even longer and more expensive than longitudinal studies Matching Exercise: Term Evolutionary theories Humanistic theories Cognitive theories Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychosexual theory Erikson’s Psychosocial theory Behavioral Theories Classical Conditioning Theories Operant Conditioning Theories Social-Cognitive Learning Theories Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Information Processing Theories Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Matching definition A. Emphasize the uniqueness and potential of human development. B. Learning by observation/imitation C. Emphasize conflict bet. Indiv and society, unconscious forces and the childhood D. Focus on efficiency, speed and capacity of thought E. Emphasize the role of the environment and observable behavior F. 4 stages: sensorimotor, preoperational etc G. Emphasize the role of heredity in Dev. H. Learning through stimulus substitution and temporal association I. Emphasizes what people know and think J. 5 stages: Oral, Anal, etc K. Connections bet.all levels of environ L. Learning: actions and consequences M. 8 stages: trust v. mistrust, etc. N. Focus on the effects of culture on dev. Exercise Two: Your biases and distinguishing theories Most students come to class with a bias or predisposition toward one or more of the four basic theoretical frameworks. Answer the following questions to see whether you can discern a pattern in your responses that might indicate a bias toward one theory or another. You may check more than one answer if both reflect your opinion. 1. The father of a 2-year-old finds that he becomes very impatient with his daughter when night after night, she claims she cannot fall asleep because of a "monster that comes out in the dark." Although each night the father tries to reassure and comfort his daughter, the next morning she does not remember his attempts to reason with her regarding her fear. He should probably: a. try to understand the hidden causes and meaning of his daughter's dreams. b. give his daughter a reward the following morning if she stayed in bed until falling asleep the night before. c. realize that, because of her limited intellectual abilities at age 2, she cannot be rationally reasoned with. d. consider how he can structure his interactions with his daughter to "mentor" her through her fear. e. recognize that fears of the dark are partly genetic, because they undoubtedly helped our species survive. 2. Most adults become physiologically aroused when they hear the sound of a baby's cry. This is because: a. the baby's cry evokes unconscious memories of their own painful childhood. b. at some time during their past, the sound of a baby crying became associated with another stimulus that naturally elicited physiological arousal. c. they unconsciously become irritated by the distracting sound. d. nurturing young babies is a developmental challenge that all humans face and address in culture-specific ways. e. humans are biologically predisposed to respond favorable to an infant crying 3. A preteenage boy is not interested in having sexual experiences. The most reasonable explanation is that: a. he feels threatened: he is denying his true feelings, possibly without realizing what they are. b. he has probably had anxiety-producing experiences with sex and wants to avoid any repetition of these experiences. c. his ideas and values make sexual experiences seem wrong or inappropriate for him right now. d. his social, or cultural, background has not yet fostered such interests. e. his biological immaturity means he has not yet experienced the hormonal surge of puberty 4. Nine-year-old David is more aggressive in the classroom than Maria. His teacher should probably: a. refer David to a therapist who can get him to talk about his repressed urges. b. give him stars and privileges whenever he behaves appropriately. c. find out why he is not concentrating on the material; to begin with, have his vision, hearing, and other perceptual abilities tested. d. realize that David's history of social interactions have not challenged him to develop certain social competencies. e. consider that boys are naturally somewhat more aggressive than boys 5. Advertisers often incorporate "babyishness" in their promotional symbols because: a. most adults have hidden consummatory urges stemming from their childhoods. b. people are conditioned to act impulsively (and, perhaps, spend money) around children. c. they are afraid of making their sales pitches too intellectually complex for the average consumer. d. people in most cultures are socialized to respond favorably to babies. e. adults are genetically predisposed to respond favorably to images of infancy. (“a” answers represent the psychoanalytic perspective, “b” the behaviorist, “c” the cognitive, “d” the Sociocultural and “e” the biological/evolutionary. Remember, there is no “right” or “wrong” perspective!