Download Chapter One Handout: Introduction/Methods

Chapter One Handout: Introduction/Methods
From the PowerPoint Presentation:
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages & Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Age
Freud
Erikson
B-1year
(Infancy)
1-3 year
(Toddler)
3-6 year
(Early
childhood)
6-12 year
(Middle
childhood)
Teenage
Early
adulthood
Middle
adulthood
Late
adulthood
Oral: The mouth is the focus of stimulation
and interaction; feeding and weaning are
central.
Anal: The anus is the focus of stimulation and
interaction; elimination and toilet training are
central.
Phallic: The genitals (penis, clitoris, and
vagina) are the focus of stimulation; gender
role and moral development are central.
Latency: A period of suspended sexual
activity; energies shift to physical and
intellectual activities.
Genital The genitals are the focus of
stimulation with the onset of puberty; mature
sexual relationships develop.
Trust vs. Mistrust: learn that others
will care for their basic needs
Genital continues
Intimacy vs. Isolation: forming adult
loving relationships
Generativity vs. Stagnation: leaving
a legacy for the next generation
Integrity vs. Despair: accepting
their lives as they have lived them
Genital continues
Genital continues
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt: learn
to be self-sufficient
Initiative vs. Guilt: learn to initiate
interactions with others
Industry vs. Inferiority: learning
they are competent beings
Identity vs. Role Diffusion: learning
who they are
Illustration of Classical Conditioning
BEFORE CONDITIONING:
(A) Place a nipple in baby's mouth:
Touch of nipple (UCS) — — — —elicits — — — — — > Sucking reflex (UCR)
(B) Show baby a bottle with a nipple:
Sight of bottle with nipple (NS) — — — — — —elicits — — — — — > No sucking
DURING CONDITIONING:
(C) Show baby the a bottle and then place a nipple in baby's mouth.
Repeat a number of times:
NS (paired with) UCS
UCS of nipple in mouth => UCR of sucking
Learning occurs! Infant learns that the sight of the bottle predicts a nipple being placed in it’s
mouth and then becomes conditioned to start sucking when he/she sees the bottle before
anything is even placed in his/her mouth!
AFTER CONDITIONING
(D) Show baby the bottle with nipple:
Sight of bottle with nipple (CS)— — — —elicits — — — — — > Sucking reflex (CR)
UCS=Unconditioned Stimulus
CS=Conditioned Stimulus
UCR=Unconditioned Response
CR=Conditioned Response
NS=Neutral Stimulus
Operant Conditioning
Rate of Response
Delivered
Withdrawn
Response leads stimulus to be
Increases
Decreases
Positive reinforcement
(Increases behavior by delivering a
desired stimulus)
Example:
Infant says, "cookie”
Mother gives praise
Infant says “cookie” more
Negative reinforcement
(Increases behavior by removing an
aversive stimulus)
Example:
Child cleans messy room
Parent stops "nagging"
Child cleans room more
Stage
Sensorimotor
b-2 yrs
Preoperational
2-6 years
Concrete Operational
7-12 years
Formal operational
12 years +
Punishment
(Decreases behavior by delivering an
aversive stimulus)
Example:
Toddler throws toys
Father yells, "Stop it"
Toddler throws toys less
Punishment
(Decreases behavior by removing a desired
stimulus)
Example:
Teenager out past curfew
Parent grounds teenager
Teenagers out past curfew less
Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Description
-exploration through direct sensory and motor contact. Object Permanence and
separation anxiety develop
-use of symbols (words/images) to represent objects but does not reason
logically. Pretend Play. Egocentric.
-logical thought about concrete objects. Passes conservation tasks
-can reason about abstract concepts and think hypothetically
Theories: Core Concepts, Continuity, Differences & Nature/Nurture
Theory
Core Concepts
Continuity
Differences
Psychoanalytic Emphasizes internal conflicts,
Discontinuous Deficits emerge when
mostly unconscious, which
(stages)
stages are not positively
usually pit sexual or aggressive
resolved
instincts against
Behaviorism
Cognitive
Sociocultural
environmental obstacles to their
expression.
Emphasizes learning, through
stimulus substitution, patterns
of reward and punishment, and
modeling
Emphasizes mechanisms
through which people receive,
store, retrieve, and otherwise
process information.
Emphasizes the influence of
Society and Culture and
learning as an interactive
process
Nature/Nurture
More nature
(innate urges
etc.)
Continuous
Deficits are learned and
can be unlearned
More nurture
Discontinuous
(Piaget),
Continuous
(InfoProcessing)
Stages depend
on the
culture/society
Although children learn
actively, deficits emerge
if the environment
doesn’t support learning
More nature
(brain)
Deficits occur when one
is unable to function in
whatever culture you
live in
More nurture
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory:
0. Individual: sex age health etc.
1. Microsystem: Within this system the person has direct interactions with parents, teachers,
peers, and others.
2. Mesosystem: This system involves the linkages between microsystems such as family and
school, and relationships between students and peers.
3. Exosystem: This system works when settings in which a child does not have an active role
influence the student’s experiences.
4. Macrosystem: This system involves the broader culture in which students and teachers live.
5. Chronosystem: The sociohistorical conditions of a student’s development.
Approach
Cross-Sectional
Developmental Methods
Description
Advantages
Disadvantages
Comparison of children of
different ages at the same
point in time.
Requires less time; less
costly than longitudinal
study.
Cannot study individual
patterns of development or
the stability of traits;
subject to cohort effects
Longitudinal
Repeated testing of the
same group of children
over an extended period of
time.
Can examine the stability
of characteristics.
Requires a significant
investment of time and
resources; problems with
participant attrition; can
have age-history
confound.
Cross-Sequential
Observation of children of
different ages over an
extended period of time.
Avoids cohort and agehistory confound effects
Even longer and more
expensive than
longitudinal studies
Matching Exercise:
Term
Evolutionary theories
Humanistic theories
Cognitive theories
Psychodynamic Theories
Freud’s Psychosexual theory
Erikson’s Psychosocial theory
Behavioral Theories
Classical Conditioning Theories
Operant Conditioning Theories
Social-Cognitive Learning Theories
Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental
Theory
Information Processing Theories
Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory
Brofenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Matching definition
A. Emphasize the uniqueness and potential of human
development.
B. Learning by observation/imitation
C. Emphasize conflict bet. Indiv and society, unconscious
forces and the childhood
D. Focus on efficiency, speed and capacity of thought
E. Emphasize the role of the environment
and observable behavior
F. 4 stages: sensorimotor, preoperational etc
G. Emphasize the role of heredity in Dev.
H. Learning through stimulus substitution
and temporal association
I. Emphasizes what people know and think
J. 5 stages: Oral, Anal, etc
K. Connections bet.all levels of environ
L. Learning: actions and consequences
M. 8 stages: trust v. mistrust, etc.
N. Focus on the effects of culture on dev.
Exercise Two: Your biases and distinguishing theories
Most students come to class with a bias or predisposition toward one or more of the four basic theoretical frameworks.
Answer the following questions to see whether you can discern a pattern in your responses that might indicate a bias toward
one theory or another. You may check more than one answer if both reflect your opinion.
1.
The father of a 2-year-old finds that he becomes very impatient with his daughter when night after night, she
claims she cannot fall asleep because of a "monster that comes out in the dark." Although each night the father
tries to reassure and comfort his daughter, the next morning she does not remember his attempts to reason with her
regarding her fear. He should probably:
a. try to understand the hidden causes and meaning of his daughter's dreams.
b. give his daughter a reward the following morning if she stayed in bed until falling asleep the night before.
c. realize that, because of her limited intellectual abilities at age 2, she cannot be rationally reasoned with.
d. consider how he can structure his interactions with his daughter to "mentor" her through her fear.
e. recognize that fears of the dark are partly genetic, because they undoubtedly helped our species survive.
2.
Most adults become physiologically aroused when they hear the sound of a baby's cry. This is because:
a. the baby's cry evokes unconscious memories of their own painful childhood.
b. at some time during their past, the sound of a baby crying became associated with another stimulus that naturally elicited
physiological arousal.
c. they unconsciously become irritated by the distracting sound.
d. nurturing young babies is a developmental challenge that all humans face and address in culture-specific ways.
e. humans are biologically predisposed to respond favorable to an infant crying
3.
A preteenage boy is not interested in having sexual experiences. The most reasonable explanation is that:
a. he feels threatened: he is denying his true feelings, possibly without realizing what they are.
b. he has probably had anxiety-producing experiences with sex and wants to avoid any repetition of these experiences.
c. his ideas and values make sexual experiences seem wrong or inappropriate for him right now.
d. his social, or cultural, background has not yet fostered such interests.
e. his biological immaturity means he has not yet experienced the hormonal surge of puberty
4.
Nine-year-old David is more aggressive in the classroom than Maria. His teacher should probably:
a. refer David to a therapist who can get him to talk about his repressed urges.
b. give him stars and privileges whenever he behaves appropriately.
c. find out why he is not concentrating on the material; to begin with, have his vision, hearing, and other perceptual abilities
tested.
d. realize that David's history of social interactions have not challenged him to develop certain social competencies.
e. consider that boys are naturally somewhat more aggressive than boys
5.
Advertisers often incorporate "babyishness" in their promotional symbols because:
a. most adults have hidden consummatory urges stemming from their childhoods.
b. people are conditioned to act impulsively (and, perhaps, spend money) around children.
c. they are afraid of making their sales pitches too intellectually complex for the average consumer.
d. people in most cultures are socialized to respond favorably to babies.
e. adults are genetically predisposed to respond favorably to images of infancy.
(“a” answers represent the psychoanalytic perspective, “b” the behaviorist, “c” the cognitive, “d” the Sociocultural and “e”
the biological/evolutionary. Remember, there is no “right” or “wrong” perspective!