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Transcript
Adaptive behavior in autonomous individuals Michael Vigorito Department of Psychology History of Mind Phrenology – Franz Gall (1758 – 1828) suggested that bumps of the skull represented mental abilities. His theory, though incorrect, nevertheless proposed that different mental abilities were modular. Studying the mind (intelligence) from the perspective of information processing (Cognitive Psychology) . Studying intelligence from the perspective of behavioral adaptation to the environment Neural Communication Neuroscientists and psychologists understand that humans and animals operate similarly when responding to environmental stimuli and when processing information with some exceptions (e.g., language processing) Today we know that much of animal/human behavior is a result of numerous complex circuits that function in parallel. • Behavior as an adaptation to the environment • Adaptive Behavior does not always require information processing (cognition) A simple nervous system circuit 1. Sensory neuron 2. Motor neuron 3. Interneuron •Behavior change (Learning) as an adaptation to environmental change. Rat in an operant Chamber • Anthropomorphism is a common error when explaining animal behavior • We sometimes overestimate the importance of our cognition (thinking) in the control of our own behavior. Unconditioned (innate) Behaviors Simple => (e.g., reflexes) Eliciting Elicited Stimulus Response Heat Loud noise Air puff to eye Limb withdrawal Startle Eye blink Food in mouth Complex => [e.g., sign stimuli & FAP ] Salivation Long beak with red spot Pecking response Egg Egg retrieval Visual stimulus Eye fixation Smell of food Approach and search (appetitive behavior) Taste of Food Chewing/swallowing (consummatory behavior) Very Complex => Ethology e.g. Courtship and reproductive behavior in the stickleback Behavior e.g. General Search Systems Focal Search Food Handling/Ingestion Valentino Braitenberg’s Vehicles • Valentino Braitenberg's booklet 'Vehicles' has received much attention in the robotics community. • Shows that complex behavior does not require a complex brain, but emerges from the interactions between the vehicle and its environment. The more complex its environment, the more complex its behavior. Law of Uphill Analysis and Downhill Invention: machines are easy to understand if you’re creating them; much harder to understand "from the outside". Psychological consequence: if we don’t know the internal structure of a machine, we tend to overestimate its complexity. Vehicle 1: Alive Components: - One heat sensor - One motor (rotates in forward direction only) - One connection between sensor & motor Principle: The more there is of the quality (e.g., heat) to which the sensor is tuned, the faster the motor goes. Description: alive, restless, doesn’t "like" heat Vehicle 2a: Cowardly Components: 2 light sensors, 2 motors, each sensor connected to the motor on the same side ("uncrossed") Principle: The more there is of the quality to which the sensor is tuned, the faster the motors go ("excitatory"). Vehicle 2a: Cowardly + + Description: dislikes source to which the sensor is tuned; occasionally "attacks" it Vehicle 2b: Aggressive Components: 2 sensors, 2 motors, each sensor connected to the motor on the opposite side ("crossed") Principle: The more there is of the quality to which the sensor is tuned, the faster the motors go ("excitatory"). Description: dislikes source to which the sensor is tuned; "attacks" it Vehicle 2b: Aggressive Vehicle 2a: Coward Vehicles 3a & 3b Loving Principle: The more there is of the quality to which the sensor is tuned, the slower the motors go ("inhibitory"). Vehicle 3a : Loving/Quietly accepting Components: uncrossed connections Description: loves the source, wants to be near it, comes to rest facing it Vehicle 3b: Loving/Exploring Components: crossed connections Description: likes the source, but easily attracted away Vehicles 3a & 3b Loving Principle: The more there is of the quality to which the sensor is tuned, the slower the motors go ("inhibitory"). Vehicle 3a : Loving/Quietly accepting Components: uncrossed connections Description: loves the source, wants to be near it, comes to rest facing it Vehicle 3b: Loving/Exploring Components: crossed connections Description: likes the source, but easily attracted away Vehicle 3c: Knowing, Valuing Components: 4 sensors, 4 motors, each tuned to different properties of the environment. V U U V Excitatory Inhibitory Principle: one each of the four types so far: • uncrossed/excitatory: tuned to temperature • crossed/excitatory: tuned to light • uncrossed/inhibitory: tuned to organic material • crossed/inhibitory: tuned to oxygen level Description: Cowardly toward areas of high temperature; Aggressive toward light sources; Loves organic material; leaves and seeks new source if environment is depleted; Restlessly seeks best source of oxygen. Vehicle 3c appears to know a great deal and appears to have a system of Values Vehicle 4a: Displaying Instincts, Specialization Monotonic relationship Inhibitory Motor Speed Motor Speed Excitatory Intensity of Stimulation Intensity of Stimulation Excitatory Intensity of Stimulation Motor Speed Motor Speed Non-Monotonic relationship Inhibitory Intensity of Stimulation Vehicle 4a: Displaying Instincts, Specialization Components: sensors and motors Principle: connections both excitatory and inhibitory but non-monotonic Description: does everything 3c vehicles do, but with much less predictability. Vehicle 4b: Making Decisions Components: sensors and motors, and threshold devices Principle: connections both excitatory and inhibitory but nonmonotonic Motor Speed Description: does everything 3c vehicles do, but with much less predictability, and appears to ponder over its "decisions"; appears to will. Intensity of Stimulation Vehicle 5: Reasoning Logically, Counting, Recognizing Individuals Components: sensors, motors, threshold devices, some networked, so they give output according to some numerical formula (e.g., one out for every three in). Principle: connections are both excitatory and inhibitory, monotonic and non-monotonic. Like a computer. Description: apparently recognizes individuals, counts, does logic, math calculations. Learning • Change in Behavior as a result of experience • Existing reflexes, FAP, and complex behavioral systems are modified as a result of experience • Learning = behavioral adaptation to changing environments – mobility results in a changing environment – the presence of autonomous others results in a changing environment Environmental Stimuli Emitted Response Eliciting Elicited Stimulus Response Internal Stimuli • motor feedback • motivation (extrinsic; intrinsic) • emotion • cognition (e.g. expectation; intention) *Environmental Stimuli Emitted Response *Eliciting Elicited Stimulus Response Types of learning (& Laboratory Procedures for investigating them): 1. Habituation/Sensitization 2. Classical (Pavlovian) conditioning 3. Operant (Instrumental) conditioning 4. Cognitive Learning Habituation *Environmental Stimuli Emitted Response *Eliciting Elicited Stimulus Response Not Required In an habituation experiment the eliciting stimulus is presented more than once or repeatedly. Habituation Gill Withdrawal Reflex Habituation in a rat Sensitization Role of Habituation & Novelty in Exploratory Behavior • Given a choice between an object that was previously encountered and a second novel item, rats and monkeys prefer the novel item. • This increases exploration of objects in the environment Part 1: exposure to single object Part 2: exposure to both objects Rat spends more time exploring novel object Classical Conditioning – associating two stimuli *Environmental Stimuli Emitted Response Not Required *Eliciting Elicited Stimulus Response Classical Conditioning – associating two stimuli *Environmental Stimuli *Neutral Stimulus (Light) Emitted Response + *Eliciting Elicited Stimulus Response Not Required Restrained dog Food Mobile pigeon Food Salivation Approach & consumption Sign Tracking revealed through a classical conditioning procedure Sign Tracking as Adaptive Behavior Sign tracking Video The form of the pecking behavior Video Sign Tracking as Maladaptive Behavior Sign tracking long box experiment Video Socially Learned Food Preferences in rodents Part 1: Demonstrator rat eats a novel food alone Novel Food A Part 2: Observer rat socially interacts with demonstrator after the demonstrator is finished eating Demonstrator Observer rat Part 3: Observer rat prefers the food eaten by the demonstrator rat Novel Food A vs. Novel Food B How do they learn? Lingering smell of novel food is associated with Carbon Disulfide smell on Demonstrator’s breadth (Stimulus 1) (Stimulus 2) Operant Conditioning – Associate responses and reinforcement (eliciting stimulus) – Organism is active (responses are required) – Responses that emerge or are strengthened are said to be emitted *Environmental Stimuli Emitted Response *Eliciting Elicited Stimulus Response Eliciting Stimulus if effective is a reinforcer. The emitted response (Operant) is increased in probability when followed by a reinforcer. Operant Conditioning Shaping Video Skinner explains operant conditioning http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_ctJqjlrHA Cognitive Learning (Learning in the absence of eliciting stimuli) • Latent learning – Tolman’s rats: cognitive maps Learning Information that may (or may not) be useful in the future Copyright © 2005 Allyn & Bacon Spatial Learning in the Water maze Task First exposure to the water maze After several trials