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11 – 11 – 98 First lecture for Final Test GEORGE WILHELM HEGAL In the 19th century, Freud is popular and there is a connection between him and German psychology, but not with Wundt. George Wilhelm Hegal: 1771 – 1821. Taught that the movement in the world must be matched by a corresponding thought process that can understand change. Hegal’s life is a reflection of his time. Sees warfare and internal strife in his time. He said, “Truth is in the whole.” Very similar to Gestalt ideas and he came before them. He said you must see everything from the beginning to understand everything. You can’t go in the middle of a movie and understand it. You need logic to understand it, he was very much into logic. Today, the news bites we see are useless, they don’t explain anything. (From outline) The function of the mind is to find unity in diversity. To do this the mind must reason using thesis, antithesis and synthesis. When we make major decisions these rules come into mind. • THESIS: List the reasons for • ANTITHESIS: List the reasons against • SYNTHESIS: Put the two together and weigh the arguments. Ex. It’s that time of the year to decide what to do after graduation… According to Hegal we must blame ourselves if things go bad. ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER and FRIEDRICK NIETZSCHE Schopenhauer wrote a book called World as Will and Idea. He taught that the human will is more important than the human mind since the will, through its choices determines experience. He is pessimistic while Nietzsche is optimistic. If we give in to the wills we’re going to have a sad life. It’s so easy to do. But why? Doesn’t it sound good. I want this and that. But we’re going to end up wanting much more than we can ever have. It’ll go on forever. After you get what you want there’s another problem. People see your wealth and become envious of you and start to dislike you. They will start to treat you differently. 1 Today we have the phrase: Be careful what you wish for… We have to will to live. Why is he pessimistic? Because an unchecked id will lead to unhappiness. Freud’s id – I want this and that, all desire. The ego controls this as does the superego. The id is powerful. Freud just changed the words around but kept Schopenhauer’s ideas. It’s an awful world so Schopenhauer said it’s the will that does this. In his day, humans will use the will for greed. There’s more industry growing in his time. Schopenhauer became a victim of his own philosophy. He had a bad childhood. He grew up to hate women because he hated his mother. His mother pushed him down the stairs when he was 12 and never saw her again. When he grew up he courted women and then left them out of revenge. Never married and he died young. Later he pushed an old woman down the stairs when she made too much noise. He projected his mother on her and she became his mother for a moment. Similar to Jack Nicholson’s character in “As Good As It Gets” Freud - When we get into interpersonal relationships we will relive past relationships in similar ways. NIETZSHE 1844 – 1900 “Will To Power” Went crazy in life. In 1892 he had an accident and spent the last eight years of his life in bed. His sister, Elizabeth, a fascist, gave his philosophy to the nazis. His last great book was, Will To Power (also his famous quote), and claims what does not destroy me makes me stronger. There’s a famous photo of Hitler standing next to a bust of Nietzche. Power gives you freedom. You can use your will to do anything you want to do. We could have a good life if we control our wills and do what you want to do. Ex. Bill Gates. There are smarter people out there but Gates has will. Hitler was only a corporal and wanted to be an artist but because of his will, he became powerful by the 1930’s. Socrates was his hero. Socrates had a strong will. When the Greeks told him not to preach his teachings under the threat of death, Socrates said, “Go on, kill me.” So he won the argument with his life. He had a strong will. We have to die sometime, why not die nobly. Nietzsche was an optimist though and said we could lead a good life if we can control our wills. Another of his famous quotes was “God is Dead” He meant that humans, using their wills are changing the planet. People are making miracles in technology so we are taking control over our destinies. So the need for God is disappearing. He meant this in a figurative way not literal. Also said, “What doesn’t kill us will, make us stronger.” If we can survive a crisis we can survive again. After WWI Germany was in total chaos and this is what Hitler did to take control of the country by 1939. Nietzche would’ve hated him. He said do not harm the Jews of Germany. But people still see him as part of nazism. 2 Continue with Nietsche… He also came up with three parts of the mind: I, over I and id. Freud will change this to the ego/I, over I/superego and id/id. Nietzsche had the repression idea first. When questioned about the similarity to Nietzsche’s idea, Freud gave two answers. “Either coincidence or Krytonesia – Memory problem, I’ve seen it somewhere but can’t place it in my memory. Excuse for plagiarism. They never met but they shared the same woman at one point in their lives. A Russian Countess, Ulusole, was a black widow, similar to Schopenhuer. She studied with Freud and this is where he got his ideas from. Nietzche said we should all try to become Supermen. An ethically moral person with a strong will and mind and morality. Just like the comic book character. Hitler had those qualities except morality. With no morality we have a monster. Also came up with “herd instinct”: We follow the herd of morality. CHARLES DARWIN 1809 - 1882 Those animals that adapt to their environment are the ones that survive. Americans, the English and the Russians accept this. Germany doesn’t accept this. Humans are the smartest because of a long evolutionary process. Evolution through Natural Selection. He was born February 12, 1909. The exact day Lincoln was born. He came from a wealthy family in England. He did bad in college and his father wanted to punish him by making him become a priest. He didn’t want to do this. He hears of an opportunity to sail with a British ship called the Beagle on a five year mission to explore the world. They needed a biologist and he had a background in biology. He wants to go and his uncle convinces his father to let him go. The mission is from 1831 to 1839. He noticed so many different types of life forms exist, many that have never been seen before. He was only 25 when he returned back. Money was never a problem. He is now a lord and had a nice house but suffered illness after illness. It could’ve been from his travels or from his anxiety over the church doctrine and his own evolutionary theory. He marries his first cousin. Thomas Malthus In 1798, (200 years ago) Malthus publishes his book. He was a poor priest and read about future utopias. But he didn’t buy into that nonsense. He worked in a church for the poor and saw how they suffered. He pointed out the food supply grows mathematically while the population grows geometrically. Still a problem today. Today we have almost 6 billion people. The earth can physically hold 40 billion but it will be a different world than from now. Other species must go. In the Middle East they’re fighting for land. 3 Back to Darwin: Darwin takes hold of this idea and forms his own. He wanted to know how all these species exist in the world. More species are born than will survive, what makes them survive is their adaptation to the environment. These traits are passed on to their progeny while those that don’t adapt die off. Darwin did say we share a common heritage. Snails and insects can die easily so they must produce a lot to ultimately survive. This is evolution through natural selection. W/O the checks and balances of war and disease the human race will out populate itself to death. It’s like nature is doing an experiment on us. What makes them survive? Who is the strongest and who will adapt? All life forms are related to one another by DNA. Every biological lifeform has DNA. Darwin doesn’t want to get into any trouble with the church so he keeps quiet until a man named Wallace comes up with the same idea. At first he wanted the book published after his death but Wallace sent him a letter telling him of the same discovery. So Darwin and Wallace jointly present their ideas. But Darwin publishes his book first. It sells all 1200 copies when it comes out! Within 12 years of his publication he got biologist to buy his idea by convincing this idea to young scientists. Not the old ones whose views he could not change. He also published his theories to the public. Wallace was a religious man and disagreed with Darwin on the point that we come from apes. Wallace said we evolved separately. This interest in biology sparked research and by the 1900’s chromosomes are found and then in the 1950’s DNA is discovered. The right paradigm led to amazing discoveries. A man named LeMark, a French biologist, had a wrong theory and said acquired traits can be passed down to their offspring. If a person reads a lot then his kids will read a lot. Wrong theory. HERBERT SPENCER 1820 - 1903 Darwinism applied to psychology. Hebert Spencer said there should be social Darwinism. How should countries make themselves successful. First person to take Darwin’s theory into a social context. What should we do with the impoverished? Let them die. They are a waste of taxpayers money. Our $ should be spent on more better things to improve our society. Charities are okay but not tax money. Not a dead idea. Very much alive today. We don’t view the poor today in a positive light. We vote to cut welfare off today so maybe they won’t have kids. There are 600,000 kids in the L.A.. County Welfare System. 600,000 kids at risk for physical and mental problems. There’s always a job for Social welfare in LA.. Spencer coined the term, “Survival of the fittest.” in 1852. The best policy for a government to follow was a laissez-faire policy that provided for free competition among its citizens. Taxes to the poor are a waste of money and only interfere with evolutionary principles and inhibit a society on course to perfection. Was treated like a hero by John D. Rockefeller. Darwin would have opposed this idea though. 4 C. LLOYD MORGAN 1852 – 1936 A successor to Darwin. An animal experimenter; was criticized as being too anthropomorphic. He said to explain phenomena in the simplest manner possible. Ex. Behaviorism is just stimulus and response. FRACIS GALTON 1822 – 1922 Began to measure intelligence by using sensory motor tests. Galton is Darwin’s half cousin. Forerunner to mental intelligence. Believes we have an innate endowment – how smart we are to survive. He measures individual differences in people. He picks several traits in people and finds a normal bell curve for every trait. Created a number of tests to test the senses. He found the universal distribution on the bell curve. He is the monster who created the curve for us to study in statistics. Also came up with chi-sqaure statistic. Then Pearson came along and tried to measure two variables. What is the “Statistic regression toward the mean”? Galton thought intelligence was a matter of sensory acuity because humans could know the world only through the senses. He believed that intelligence is inherited. He believed in eugenics, the practice of selective breeding. He called the improvement of living organism through selective breeding eugenics and advocated its practice. Galton also introduced fingerprinting to crimefighting. He noticed no two people have the same fingerprints. Also came up with Autobiographical Memory. Strong memories that make us who we are – major events in our lives. But how do we get to them? By using a cue word. Saying one word and ask the subject what memory comes to mind. Called the word – association test. Freud may or may not have been influenced by Galton. Galton’s word test has two aspects of Freud’s psychoanalysis. The use of free association and the recognition of unconscious motivation. It was Karl Pearson who devised a formula that produced a mathematical expression of the strength of a relationship, called the coefficient of correlation (r) 5 11-18-98 2 lecture for Final nd Darwinism changed the view of psychology with his new interpretation of evolution. Evolution has been with us since the Greeks but Darwin comes up his with own idea. Evolution works by natural selection: A key concept in his theory. Because more members of a species are born than environmental resources can support, nature selects those with characteristics most conducive to survival under the circumstances to continue living and to reproduce. Darwin defined fitness as an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce and in terms of nothing eles. Fitness is then determined by an organism’s features and it’s environment. Features that allow adequate adjustment to an organism’s environment are called adaptive. You must adapt to your environment and then pass on those characteristics to your progeny. Those organism’s possessing adaptive features are fit; those that do not, are not. Today we have economic, mental, and social survival. We have to adapt our actions to fit the changing environment. If the environment never changed there would be no need for evolution in the first place. The comet that hit the earth 70 million years ago made such a mess of the earth that the dinosaurs could not adapt to the change so they dies off. If the comet never hit the earth we would not be here today. Somehow the mammals were able to adapt and we evolved from them. Darwinism influenced the development of psychology in RUSSIA. Ivan Sechenov 1829-1905 introduced the Russians to Darwin’s ideas. He said the brain is so powerful it developed a special talent! The brain can learn and remember. The brain must change in order for this to happen. Today’s we know that neurons grow their dendrites to make connections with other cells. This is a special talent in mammals especially humans. There was case where a man could not remember long term memory. He lives in the year 1951 forever. Anything past 15 minutes he cannot remember. He cannot adapt. STABILITY AND PLASTICITY: For stability, some mechanisms in the brain cannot change or eles we would not survive. And some processes have to change in order to survive. Networking in the brain is a physical change with synaptic gaps. A strong memory changes your brain, this helps for survival. Brain has to change in order to survive. Emotions change too. The brain modifies by memory. We are born with all the Neurons we will ever have but they can grow dendrites to make connections. 6 Pavlov considered himself a PHYSIOLOGIST, NOT A PSYCHOLOGIST. He got mad when people called him that. He stumbled onto the CS and UCS by chance when the dogs were anticipating the food they were going to eat. The dogs knew they were going to get food to eat. Pavlov had the Russian military fund his experiments. He had an elaborate lab in Leningrad, now St. Petersburg. How does the brain learn using classical conditioning is the 21st century question. He found out about C.C. by accident when the dogs started to salivate. If you live in a very stressful environment you will get sick. There is the potential for that to occur. But some people can handle what life hits them with. Some people have a strong resiliency and they survive a lot. Others cannot adapt and do not survive as others do. William James 1842-1910 “There is Free Will” James starts American psychology with his book, Principles of Psychology. The first paradigm for psychology is called Functionalism. He is also a philosopher. He studies Darwinism and decides to make a connection between Darwinism and psychology. In his Principles book you must allow psych. to operate using Darwinism. Use consciousness for survival. James wanted to be painter but that didn’t work out. Suffering from a personal crisis because he believed anything that happened to him was predetermined because of his belief in a materialistic philosophy. He depression was a matter of fate and his acceptance of Darwin’s view exacerbated the problem. Then he read an essay on free will by Charles Renouvier. James said, “My first act of free will be to believe in free will.” This change in his belief systems cured his depression and became highly productive. “Will to believe.” – Humans are free to believe in any set of ideas. He fought off his depression as best he could, when it came back he tried to fight it. Comes and goes. In 1878 James credits himself as starting the first psych. lab. Not as elaborate as Wundt’s. Then Harvard becomes the first university to teach psychology. James believed in PRAGMATISM. If an idea works it is valid (whatever works, works.) He believed both a scientific and philosophical approach must be used to study human behavior. He believed there are pluralistic questions to behavior, questions with many answers so James believed in studying them all including paranormal phenomena. This did not go well with his colleagues who felt he was giving them a bad name. For religion he believed if it helps you survive then it is useful. We will believe in ideas with pratical consequences. Ideas without any actions are useless. William James became a radical empiricist. He said the American science of psychology should study any phenomena that can occur to the human mind. No limits should be placed on what to be studied. Should we study UFO abductions? YES, according to James. The advantage to this idea is that we learn everything there is about humans. 7 William James Consciousness idea James opposed Wundt’s approach to pysch. He did not like the search for elements by of psych. by experimentation as Wundt was doing. James believed in a stream of consciousness. Consciousness is personal and cannot be generalized to others and it is continuous and cannot be divided up for analysis. It is also constantly changing. Same idea Heraclitus said about never stepping into the same river twice. Consciousness is selective and finally it is functional. The purpose of consciousness is to aid the individual in adapting to the environment. G. Stanley Hall 1844-1924 APA co-founder and first president One of James’ students was Hall. He studied under him at Harvard. In July 1892 he forms the APA with 112 other psychologists. Then in December he elects himself the first president, not James who is away. In 1894 James becomes the 3rd president. We learn by acquaintance and direct studying. If you want to learn about tigers, We can read textbook and go to lectures. This is acquaintance learning. Or we can go to India and see the tigers themselves, this is direct learning. Direct learning is better. Today we call this learning internships. James said goodbye to psych. because he did not like the way it was going. It was getting away from radical empiricism. Hall told James he was a nut for going to a séance. Hall and James fought constantly over who started what. Hall said I started the first lab in the APA journal but that was untrue. James wrote him a letter saying to correct this error. Hall didn’t but the letter stayed in the archives for the record. When James invited the French psychologist, Janet, the man who studied multiple personalities, Hall had to top him. So Hall invited Freud over. Edward Lee Thorndike Studied animals. He created the puzzle box to see how cats can learn how to escape a box and receive a reward. He developed psychology’s first major learning theory. His LAW OF EFFECT stated that reward strengthened associations, whereas punishment weakened them. If we do not learn to survive we do not survive. What behaviors do we learn? The behaviors that produce satisfaction and we do not do actions that cause pain. He originated the reinforcement concept. 8 MARY WHITON CALKINS 1863-1930 Pioneering female, one of James’ students. She attended a women’s college called Wellsley but was not allowed to go to Harvard because it was then an all male school. She is the brightest among William James’ students so she was allowed as a guest student. When Harvard finally offered her the Ph.D. she refused it. In 1818 she became the president for APA. She also became president for the American Philosophy Association. From the start there have been 130,000 members of the APA. 80% of them are still alive. While working for Munsterberg she developed the still widely used paired associate technique to study the influence of frequency, recency and vividness on memory. She also did pioneering research on short term memory. Americans are always interested in practicality unlike Wundt. They studied with him but did not use his methods. In 1920 his American students got together to celebrate him. They gave him credit for one thing only: For starting psychology as a lab science. JAMES ANGEL 1869-1949 Functionalism: Under the influence of Darwin, the school of functionalism stressed the role of consciousness and behavior in adapting to the environment. Searching for the How and WHY in Behavior (on Final) V. Functionalism (Handout) Functional psychologist. He stated that functional psychology was interested in mental operations rather than conscious elements. But even mental operations in isolation were of little interest. Mental processes mediated between the needs of the organism and the environment. Mental functions helped the organism to survive. There is an emphasis on practicality. Such as in I/O psychology and forensic psychology. Mind and body could not be separated; they acted as a unit in an organism’s struggle for survival. Watson was a student of Angel. Functionalism became a bastard psychology. Moving to biology; but today biology and psychology really like each other. What people have to deal with is important, nothing post mortem is important. 9 JOHN WATSON 1878-1958 How do you study a person’s mind? You can’t. Cannot look at the mind. You can only look at the behavior of humans. So enter John Watson. John Watson changed Functionalism into Behaviorism. Watson was always in trouble as a youth. He did not like being raised as a southern Baptist. But he was smart and went to college at age 15. Got his Ph.D. at age 25. Got a lucky break when a professor decided to retire and Watson took the job. He edits the Psychological Review in 1912. In 1913 he submits his view to the journal. “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It.” This lecture is usually taken as the formal founding of behaviorism. In 1919 he does the little Albert experiment. He puts a gong above a baby’s head while introducing a neutral stimulus, a white mouse. Soon the baby becomes scared of the rat because of the loud noise after only 4 tries. But the mother found out and took the baby away before Watson could recondition him to not fear the rat. Watson and his assistant, Rosalie Rayner conducted this experiment. They soon fell in love and Watson kept all the love letters she wrote. His wife Mary Ikes, grandmother of Mariette Hartley, finds out and sues for divorce. The scandal forces Watson to resign from John Hopkins. Broke, he takes up a job in advertising at the J. Walter Thompson Advertising Company and becomes highly successful. By 1930, Watson was earning $70,000 a year. He used market research and concluded sales could be influenced by the manipulation of the images associated with brand names. He then became vice president of the William Esty Advertising Company. 10 12 – 2 –98 3 lecture for Final rd • • • • • Continue With John Watson His good contribution to psychology was Methodological Behaviorism. Remove the “why” question from the causes and concentrate on the how, to understand behavior. We should be able to predict and control behavior by using physiological, environmental and experiential causes. This is consistent with Newtonian views of science. He removed the teleological blur from Functionalism. Example for the experiential cause: Your own personal experiences. Taking tests should help you do better on future tests. Environmental cause: People fiddling beside you during a test can affect your behavior. Physiological cause: People get nervous before taking a test. These questions ask us the HOW, the Efficient cause. He’s not going to ask why they are taking the test, just how they are taking it. Watson got rid of the reinforcement concept from Thorndike. Skinner will bring it back. Watson’s BAD contribution to psychology was Philosophical Behaviorism. Do not study the mind. We do not have a conscious in the first place; it does not exist. Do not do any brain research because that will lead to the mind again. So we should only study behavior and activity. Wundt, James, Tichner and Angel all studied consciousness, Watson changes that. Watson left psychology in 1920 to go to New York to be in advertising. Contributions from Physics and Philosophy Behaviorism adopted learning to be the area of research. From 1930 to 1960, Skinner, Tolman and Hull. First movement comes from PHYSICS. In 1928 a physicist from Harvard named, Bridgeman, proposed that researchers should include in their methodologies specifications of the measurement procedures used to quantify concepts. A concept is to be defined by the methods of measurement. The operational definition insures the continuation of objectivity in physics research. His text, “The Logic of Modern Physics” was for physicists, not for psychology. A concept is synonymous with its methods of measure. We first measure the variables. Bridgeman gave us the operational definitions. He argued that we should use them. Harvard psychologists and physicists began to talk. We can replicate experiments if we know these operational definitions. The school of Behaviorism fit perfectly into this idea. Not Functionalism; we cannot give the mind an operational definition. In Psych. 202, we had to measure the independent variable and the dependent variable. The Vienna Circle philosophers put operationalism at the level of theory. A theory has to be made so we can replicate it. This goes for all science. If it’s fuzzy, we cannot replicate it, so we use operational definitions. Freud would not fit into this idea of operational definitions. His theories are too vague and impossible to understand, they’re 11 not precise. With Behaviorism, we can test it. Called Logical Postivism. We also can never have a theory of consciousness sine we cannot measure or see it. Survival is the key in functionalism (influenced by Darwinism). Just get rid of the Why and you have behaviorism. Operational definition from physics, makes our experiments reliable and Logical Positivism from philosophy, makes our theories testable. Watson had a bias against empiricism. Empiricists say learning is the acquisition of knowledge through experience. Behaviorists will substitute knowledge for behavior. He also did not like inheritance factors. Thorndike, a functional psychologist, said we change our behavior by Instrumental Conditioning. He did the experiment with the cat escaping from a box. The other learning model is classical conditioning. Edward Tolman Behavior is purposive. Supported cognitive behaviorism. Behavior is not random. The rats had found different pathways to their goal. Behavior is for a purpose but this is getting too close to the final cause. His was an unpopular view for the behaviorists. Can we get an operational definition of ‘purpose’? We have in our minds, cognitive maps. Clark Hull Hull has an engineering background. Took Theory to its’ highest level. He said we have functions, not purpose. Humans can do a lot of things called functions. We should treat ourselves as mechanical devices. In psych. 302, we learn his equation for learning: E=H*D*K. E is behavior (evoked potential), H is habit/learning, D is drive/need and K is reinforcement. We need all three for behavior. The theory works well for rats. The K is names after Kenneth Spencer who produced 97 PH.d’s. Change K value to change behavior. Hull said learning is permanent. The H value can only go up. Drive can go up or down. Do organisms learn in non-need conditions? NO. The Need comes first; learning is the bridge. A rat that is not hungry will not bar press for food pellets. The equations are multiplied because if one item is removed there will be no learning, learning will equal zero. Hull brings behaviorism back into Functionalism. Hull perfects Theory for the Behaviorists. 12 B.F. Skinner 1904 - 1990 Skinner is the most popular behaviorist. He sold the idea to the public. Carl Rogers was friends with Skinner. They did debate shows together and got rich. Skinner studied English and wanted to be a playwright. He read an H.G. Wells book on Pavlov and it changed his life. He goes to Harvard and writes a book reinforcement. Wrote “The behavior of organisms”. In 1930 the book comes out. Skinner called himself a radical behaviorist. He meant it is to be done w/o theories. We just need to know the reinforcements. No theories should be involved. Skinner gave us OPERANT CONDITIONING. An example is working on commission to promote sales activity. In 1955 Skinner got depressed. To get out of it he wrote a novel in the dialogue style of Plato about a utopian society. The skeptics and optimist talk it over. Burrhus were the skeptics and Frederics were the optimists; B.F. Skinner was talking to himself. Skinner said if we work too hard society will tax us. He tried to write about quality reinforcement. The book is a bestseller and made him happy again. In 1990 he accepted an award for his work and two weeks later he died of leukemia. He pulled himself out of his debilitating condition one more time to be at the ceremony. Operant behavior is behavior that is emitted by an organism rather than elicited by a known stimulus. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Cognitive psychology comes from the Behaviorists. In 1950 Steven Koch said Behaviorism has an internal crisis and external crisis. Internal crisis was that it could never get another theory since 1950, since Hull’s equations in 1943. We have static growth. We have taken behaviorism as far as we can go. The external crisis was the findings from WWII. Things that cannot be explained by behaviorist psychology. WWII was a turning point. How do we explain the behavior of traumatized soldiers? Behaviorist can’t. Society changed to with women in the workforce. Now the brain comes back into the scene again. Watson declared the brain off limits because of his bias against studying the conscious. Then in 1951 a patient named H.M., still alive, had a lobotomy at age 27. He suffered from severe epilepsy and had a lobotomy. He had his bilateral temporal lobes removed and that destroyed his hippocampus. He lost his ability to store long term memory. He cannot remember past four hours. He only remembers 1951. He knows you for four hours then forgets you. Shook up the behaviorists. 1964: Psychobiology comes about by James MsGaugh, an ex-behaviorist, at UCI. They study the physiology of the brain to study behavior. They especially study memory and perception. 13 Cognitive psychology says we are thinking machines. The analogy is the human mind is like a computer. We are information processors, similar to computers. Computers process and store information. Humans store, retrieve and unlike computers, we change information. In 1960 Harvard opens up the center for cognitive studies by George Miller. In 1964 the UCI lab opens up. Soul is still absent from this theory. Their paradigm is for the PLANS AND STRUCURE FOR BEHAVIOR. We plan things. We are aware of goals before we engage in them. The authors are Miller, Galanter and Pribram Carl. Experience is the software. Cognitive Dissonance: Changing beliefs to relieve tension for competing beliefs. If someone you trust tells you your best friend is a jerk, how do you react. This comes from social psychology. Cognitive psych. and the behaviorist do not get along. Skinner wrote nasty articles on the cognitive psychologists. New technology comes about in WWII. The Germans had the cruise missile and the jet in 1944. The Saturn Rocket that took Americans to the moon was from German technology. So they celebrated our landing on the moon. Another analogy is that DNA, an organic molecule, is the blueprint information for life; it has the blueprint for how all species develop. David Bohm said everything is held together by information. Each species has its own way of learning. The behaviorists said what works for rats works for humans. Not quite. 14 12 – 9 – 98 Final Lecture before Final Clinical psychology has enjoyed remarkable success. It was started by Lightner Witmar (1867 – 1956) at the University of Pennsylvania. He gets a call to help kids who have learning problems. He evaluates them by looking at their emotional life. In 1896 he starts this clinic to look at these kids. If your emotional life is messed up then the rest of your life is messed up; you’re oblivious to everything because of your state. So clinical psychology started with children (on Final). Great need for school psychologists now. Gonna have to interact with the kids’ parents and tell them their kids cannot learn. Cal State Long Beach has this program. He learned psychology from Wundt and came back to the states but did not do what he was taught. WWII had a big impact on clinical psychology. Roosevelt started the “New Deal” program. One provision was to counsel people. But academic schools were not producing qualified psychologists. So Regan approved to train clinical psychologists. Nick Cumming and Regan formed the California School of Professional Psychologists. Regan’s daughter in law is a graduate from this school. 1980’s: The APA is located in Washington, D.C. This is so they can lobby together to get their voices heard. There was an attempt to redo their charter; clinical psychologists voted a yes on this measure but the other schools of psychology said no. The charter would allow them to have more say in managed care. So they split from the APA and formed their own group. They are the hardest people to work with. The APS: American Psychological Society. The APA and the APS, both located in Washington, are now two separate groups. This may be bad for psychology. Now the APA is running out of cash. They make their money selling articles to journals. But the internet came about and people are reading papers off the computer instead of buying them. So now the APA makes new members sign a paper not to sell articles to internet sites. If you get caught, they expel you for an ethical violation. The internet really gets into your private life because you leave a trace for others to see. Internet has made a big impression on science. Scientists can now talk and share information over the computer. How do you find a job? You have to network. You have to get to know your teachers well. Clinton was gonna sign a new National Health Plan that made companies pay for psychological needs of their workers. Business said no way. It’s not our fault that you had a screwed up childhood. Before 1970, we had to pay on our own for our health needs, so we’ve been pretty lucky today. Clinton’s plan had a provision for psychology. The APA wanted this but it did not pass. 15 FREUD 1856-1939 G. Stanley Hall invited Freud and Jung for a visit to the states. Freud gives five lectures on psychoanalyses at Clark University, a popular school for psychology. Jung and Freud are still friends at this time. They analyzed each other dreams. Jung said he killed his dad in his dreams. Jung is more mystical and their friendship begins to sour. Freud did not like America. At Niagara Falls someone said, “Make way for the old man.” Anna O. Case. A hysterical woman who had nervous breakdowns. She had amnesia from her father’s death. Then she remembered and there was an emotional release. How do we know if a memory is important? The memory is accompanied by emotion. The stored emotion that is attached to the memory is called CATHEXIS. When we relive the memory and express it, that is called CATHARSIS. He began work on a book called “Project for a Scientific Psychology” in 1895. The purpose of the book was to explain psychological phenomena in purely neurophysical terms. However there was not enough information back then to study the brain so he turned to psychoanalysis. Freud borrowed a lot from Nietche. But Freud did not refer to him after he got famous in 1918. In his book “Civilization” he said we are living in a society where it makes everyone nuts. Too many rules to follow to manage your life with all these responsibilities. Like the guy in “Falling Down”. Repression: We hold back memories. Holding back of traumatic memories in the unconscious mind because pondering them in the conscious mind would cause anxiety. The Seduction theory Freud said all his patients were sexually molested as children and that was the basis for their hysteria in adulthood. So now he says some of his patients think someone they know had attacked them when they really didn’t. The basis for this neuroses was the repression of sexual thoughts, whether the thoughts were real or imagined. Today we call these false memories. Freud got rid of this theory. DREAMS He said dreams were a wish fulfillment. The id come to life in dreams and satisfies the id’s needs. The id wants and wants. But most dreams are anxiety ridden, so why is this the case. Traumatic experiences may still be part of wish fulfillment, we have to face up to bad experiences. Infants sleep most of the time in REM sleep; the dream stage. So maybe it is part of the brain development process. The brain is active when you are dreaming. Freud’s idea is that when we’re adults REM might mean we are changing our memory of the days events. 16 Gardner Murphy 10 predictions for the future of psychology 1. Brain study will become more important. It will become the major area of study. 2. Internal Scanning: Humans will learn this capability. Learning how to interpret information from our body. Can we anticipate becoming ill? There is interest in this area. Paying attention to ourselves. Psychoneuroimmunolgy. The thalamus and the bone marrow are connected. Mental health does affect your physical health. Neuropeptides have receptor sites on every cell in the body. 3. Study unconsciousness. 4. Biofeedback will become important. We control our bodies through this. 5. Nameless states, ex. false memories, low grade depression are new to the DSMIV. In winter some people just get sad, no one to share the spirit of Xmas with. 6. Psychology will become interested in parapsychology – Wrong 7. We will become more interested in behavioral genetics. 8. Have to develop cultural awareness in psychology. Yes. 9. We will develop new methods for diagnosing mental illness. MRI and CAT scans. 10. Psychology of the future will have to know much more than they do in the 1970’s. Yes. These predictions look like we are turning towards radical empiricism 17