Download Classical Conditioning

PSYCHOLOGY:
LEARNING
Learning can be defined as the process leading to
relatively permanent behavioral change or potential
behavioral change. In other words, as we learn, we alter
the way we perceive our environment
FOUR TYPES OF LEARNING
1
2
3
4
Conditioning- is making an association between
two events by repeatedly having them occur
close together in time.
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov’s method of conditioning in which
associations are made between a natural stimulus and a
learned, neutral stimulus.
Can a bell make you salivate?
Classical Conditioning can
make it happen.
When do you leave the
classroom? When the bell
rings, right? You have been
classically conditioned.
Stimulus is anything that will cause some kind of reaction.
(meat)
Response - is the reaction to the stimulus. (salivating)
There are no special conditions needed for the meat to
cause salivation, it is a natural and automatic response.
Therefore the meat is an unconditioned stimulus and the
salivation is an unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- a stimulus that
automatically elicits a response. (meat)
Unconditioned response (UCR)- an automatic response to
a particular natural stimulus. (saliva)
When the dog begins to associate the sight of the
experimenter or the sound of a bell with food, then the
experimenter or bell has become a conditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus (CS)- is a previously neutral
stimulus that has been associated with a natural
(unconditioned) stimulus (bell)
When the dog begins to salivate at the sight of the
experimenter or the sound of the bell, then the salivating
has become a conditioned response
Conditioned response (CR) -is a response to a stimulus
that has been brought about by learning
Stimulus generalization occurs when a response spreads
from one specific stimulus to other stimuli that resemble
the original (responding to any bell sound, no matter what
pitch)
Discrimination is the ability to respond differently to
distinct stimuli. (only responding to one type of bell)
Little Albert experiment conducted by John Watson
proved that conditioning of emotions to neutral objects
is possible
Extinction the gradual loss of an association over time.
The conditioned response (CR) will gradually die out
Ex. Pavlov’s dogs-food was taken away and the dogs
eventually stopped salivating at the sight of
experimenter or sound of the bell
Water Gun Experiment
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Classical Conditioning
Label a blank sheet of paper with the following and identify
each as you watch the water gun experiment
UCS
UCR
CS
CR
STIMULUS GENERALIZATION?
EXTINCTION?
UCS
water squirted at volunteer
UCR
flinch, squint, facial expression
CS
sound of the word can
CR
flinch, squint, facial expression when
word “can” is read without water squirt
SG?
If words that sound like can cause
CR (flinch, squint, facial expression)
EXTINCTION?
When the CR’s disappear or become less
pronounced when the word “can” is uttered
several times without squirt of water
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND
ADVERTISING
Before we have heard of a product, it is Neutral. If we associate
the product (N) with pleasant images (UCS), which produce
pleasant feelings (UCR), the product (CS) will later create
pleasant feelings (CR).
Let’s say you have a beverage commercial that includes barely
clothed models drinking the product. Conditioning is taking place.
Neutral: beverage product
UCS: barely clothed models
UCR: pleasant feelings
CS: the product
CR: pleasant feelings
Identify the UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus), UCR
(Unconditioned Response), CS (Conditioned
Stimulus), CR (Conditioned Response) for each of
the following:
You eat a new food and then get sick because of the flu.
However, you develop a dislike for the food and feel
nauseated whenever you smell it.
UCS: Flu Sickness
UCR: Nausea
CS:
New food
CR: Nausea to new food
An individual receives frequent injections of drugs, which
are administered in a small examination room at a clinic.
The drug itself causes increased heart rate but after several
trips to the clinic, simply being in a small room causes an
increased heart rate.
UCS: Drug
UCR: Accelerated Heart Rate
CS:
Small room
CR: Accelerated heart rate to small room
John Watson conducted an experiment with a boy named
Albert in which he paired a white rat with a loud, startling
noise. Albert now becomes startled at the sight of the white
rat.
UCS: Loud noise
UCR: startle
CS:
White rat
CR: Startle response to white rat
OPERANT CONDITIONING
Most learning occurs as a result of some voluntary action
taken by the learner. This is called operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is conditioning (learning) that
results from one’s actions and the consequences that they
cause
B.F. Skinner is best known for his work with the operant
conditioning theory.
Believed that how we turn out is a direct result of what
we learn from all of the operations (operant) that we
make over the years
Reinforcement is something that follows a response
and strengthens the tendency to repeat that response
Two types of Reinforcement
Primary reinforcement is something that is necessary
for survival. Ex: food or water
The possibility of getting one of these when
you perform an action is the strongest
incentive to learn
Secondary reinforcement is anything that comes to
represent a primary reinforcer. Ex: money brings us food
by buying it
These reinforcements can also be either positive or
negative
Positive reinforcement is when there is a tendency
to repeat a response because it was followed by the
addition of something pleasant. Something that is
wanted by the individual is given after the action
Negative reinforcement is when something that is
unpleasant is stopped or taken away when something
is done
Reinforcement always strengthens a response, rather
than weakening it.
Continuous reinforcement occurs when after each time
a behavior occurs it is reinforced. The problem with this
is that if the creature gets used to being rewarded and
then is not, it will quit doing the behavior
To avoid the problem with continuous reinforcement,
there can be different schedules of reinforcement
(different methods of reinforcing) used.
Partial reinforcement schedule is when a reward is not
given each time an act is performed. There are 4 types of
partial reinforcement schedules.
Variable ratios schedule is when reinforcement occurs
after a desired behavior occurs, but a different number of
the desired acts are required each time. Ex. slot
machines.
Fixed ratio schedule is when the reinforcement occurs
after the desired act is performed a specific number of
times. Ex. Get allowance every two times you clean
your room.
Variable interval schedule is when the reinforcement
occurs after varying amounts of time if a desired act
occurs. Ex. fishing
Fixed interval schedule is when the reinforcement is
received after a fixed amount of time has passed and the
desired act occurs. Ex. You get allowance every other
Friday.
There also is a difference between punishment and
negative reinforcement
Punishment is the process of trying to weaken a
response by following it with unpleasant consequences,
not to try and strengthen it.
There are two basic ways to go with punishment
Something desired can be taken away. Ex. money paid
for a traffic ticket (THIS IS ALSO CALLED RESPONSE
.
COST)
Something unwanted can be added. Ex. retaking drivers
test for violations
Discriminations, extinction and generalization will
occur in operant conditioning just as they occurred in
classical conditioning.
Rules in analyzing examples. The following questions can help in
determining whether operant conditioning has occurred
.
a. What behavior in the example was increased or decreased?
b. Was the behavior increased (if yes, the process has to be either
positive or negative reinforcement), or decreased (if the
behavior was decreased the process is either response cost or
punishment).
c. What was the consequence / stimulus that followed the behavior
in the example?
d. Was the consequence / stimulus added or removed? If added, the
process was either positive reinforcement or punishment. If it
was subtracted, the process was either negative reinforcement or
response cost.
Billy likes to campout in the backyard. He camped-out on
every Friday during the month of June. The last time he
camped out, some older kids snuck up to his tent while he was
sleeping and threw a bucket of cold water on him. Billy has
not camped-out for three weeks.
What behavior was changed?
CAMPING OUT
Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?
WEAKENED (YOU CAN ELIMINATE POSITIVE &
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT AS POSSIBILITIES)
What was the consequence?
HAVING WATER THROWN ON HIM
Was the consequence added or subtracted?
ADDED
Since a consequence was added and the
behavior was weakened, the process was
punishment.
Every time Madge raises her hand in class she is called on. She raised
her hand 3 time during the first class, 3 times in the second and 4 times
during the last class.
What behavior was changed?
HANDRAISING
Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?
STRENGTHENED (YOU CAN ELIMINATE
RESPONSE COST & PUNISHMENT AS
POSSIBILITIES)
What was the consequence?
BEING CALLED ON
Was the consequence added or subtracted?
ADDED
Since the consequence was added and the
behavior was strengthened, the process is
positive reinforcement.
Gregory is being reinforced using a token economy. When he follows a
direction / command he earns a point. At the end of each day, he can
"buy" freetime, t.v. privileges, etc. with his points. When he misbehaves
or doesn't follow a command, he loses points. Andrew used to call his
mom names. Since he has been on the point system, his name calling has
been reduced to almost zero.
What behavior was changed?
NAME CALLING
Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?
WEAKENED (YOU CAN ELIMINATE POSITIVE &
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT AS POSSIBILITIES)
What was the consequence?
LOSING POINTS
Was the consequence added or subtracted?
SUBTRACTED
Since the consequence was subtracted and the
behavior was weakened, the process is response
cost.
John does not go to the dentist every 6-months for a checkup.
Instead, he waited until a tooth really hurts, then goes to the
dentist. After two emergency trips to the dentist, John now
goes every 6-months
What behavior was changed?
GOING TO THE DENTIST
Was the behavior strengthened or weakened?
STRENGTHENED (YOU CAN ELIMINATE
RESPONSE COST & PUNISHMENT AS
POSSIBILITIES)
What was the consequence?
TOOTH NO LONGER HURTING
Was the consequence added or subtracted?
SUBTRACTED
Since the consequence was subtracted and the
behavior was strengthened, the process is
negative reinforcement.
Two techniques can be used to learn complex responses,
they will only be used in operant conditioning
Shaping is the process of gradually refining a
response by successively reinforcing closer versions
of it. Ex. of dog jumping through hoop. First
approach hoop, rewarded, jump hoop, rewarded etc.
Chaining is the reinforcing the connection between the
different parts of a sequence. Ex. learning how to play
basketball you learn how to dribble, then pass and
catch etc. Ex. To divide numbers you must learn to
multiply, and subtract etc.
IN REVIEW
In classical conditioning the critical part of the
conditioning occurs before the response; the stimulus
actually causes the response. In operant conditioning, the
critical part of conditioning occurs after the response; the
reinforcement determines whether the response will occur
again.
Operant Conditioning: Stimulus – Response - Reinforcement
In classical conditioning learning takes place
automatically, without any voluntary action on the part of
the subject. In operant conditioning the subject learns
from the consequences of his or her voluntary actions.
CLASSICAL = INVOLUNTARY
OPERANT = VOLUNTARY
Some behaviors are learned through classical
conditioning while others are learned through operant
conditioning and some behaviors are learned through a
combinations of both.
Present day psychology has moved away
from classical and operant conditioning.
While both play a role in learning, they fall
short of explaining complex learning
processes.
Social Learning
Social Learning is all learning that occurs in a social situation.
This was theorized by Albert Bandura, who believed that the
most important aspect of learning was the complex “inner
person” who can analyze events and make decisions before a
response is given.
This occurs between the stimulus and the response
STIMULUS
ANALYZE
RESPOND
Observational learning is the learning patterns of
behavior by watching others and imitating the behavior
of others.
From the parent a child learns speech matters, habits and
how to react to other people. The child will observe and
then pattern behavior after that of the important people in
their life.
‘Social learning’ refers to all learning in a social
situation, ‘observational learning’ is one of the
processes used for social learning where we watch
events, persons, and situations for cues on how to
behave.
COGNITIVE APPROACH TO
LEARNING
Cognitive approach is a way of learning that is based on
abstract mental processes and previous knowledge
With this approach we are able to learn very abstract
and subtle things that could not have been learned
through conditioning or social learning. Ex. broken
mirror, walking under ladder.
Cognition is studied by focusing on how complex
knowledge is obtained, processed, and organized
E.C. Tolman is a psychologist who felt that the
stimulus-response view of learning was far to
simplified. Animals use what is called a cognitive map
to aid in learning.
Cognitive Map is a mental image of where one is
located in space. Animals and people are able to view
the differences in things mentally and to remember the
changes.
Ex. Rats in a maze form a cognitive map. If they find the
exit, they can be put back in that map and recall the
cognitive map to escape
Strategies are methods for solving problems