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IB Higher Level Biology
Image Review
Fig. 3-UN3
–
Hydrogen
bond
+
H
+
–
O
–
+
H
+
–
Fig. 4-UN5
Reacts
with H2O
P
P
P Adenosine
ATP
Pi
P
Inorganic
phosphate
P
Adenosine
ADP
Energy
Fig. 5-2
HO
1
2
3
H
Short polymer
HO
Unlinked monomer
Dehydration removes a water
molecule, forming a new bond
HO
2
1
H
3
H2O
4
H
Longer polymer
(a) Dehydration reaction in the synthesis of a polymer
HO
1
2
3
4
Hydrolysis adds a water
molecule, breaking a bond
HO
1
2
3
(b) Hydrolysis of a polymer
H
H
H2O
HO
H
Fig. 5-21f
Hydrophobic
interactions and
van der Waals
interactions
Polypeptide
backbone
Hydrogen
bond
Disulfide bridge
Ionic bond
Fig. 6-9a
Nuclear
envelope
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Flagellum
Rough ER
NUCLEUS
Nucleolus
Smooth ER
Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane
CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes
Microvilli
Golgi
apparatus
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion
Lysosome
Fig. 6-9b
NUCLEUS
Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Rough endoplasmic
reticulum
Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
Ribosomes
Central vacuole
Golgi
apparatus
Microfilaments
Intermediate
filaments
Microtubules
Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Chloroplast
Plasma
membrane
Cell wall
Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
CYTOSKELETON
Fig. 7-7
Fibers of
extracellular
matrix (ECM)
Glycoprotein
Carbohydrate
Glycolipid
EXTRACELLULAR
SIDE OF
MEMBRANE
Cholesterol
Microfilaments
of cytoskeleton
Peripheral
proteins
Integral
protein
CYTOPLASMIC SIDE
OF MEMBRANE
Fig. 8-15
Course of
reaction
without
enzyme
EA
without
enzyme
EA with
enzyme
is lower
Reactants
Course of
reaction
with enzyme
∆G is unaffected
by enzyme
Products
Progress of the reaction
Fig. 8-17
1 Substrates enter active site; enzyme
changes shape such that its active site
enfolds the substrates (induced fit).
2 Substrates held in
active site by weak
interactions, such as
hydrogen bonds and
ionic bonds.
Substrates
Enzyme-substrate
complex
6 Active
site is
available
for two new
substrate
molecules.
Enzyme
5 Products are
released.
4 Substrates are
converted to
products.
Products
3 Active site can lower EA
and speed up a reaction.
Fig. 9-17
Electron shuttles
span membrane
CYTOSOL
2 NADH
Glycolysis
Glucose
2
Pyruvate
MITOCHONDRION
2 NADH
or
2 FADH2
6 NADH
2 NADH
2
Acetyl
CoA
+ 2 ATP
Citric
acid
cycle
+ 2 ATP
Maximum per glucose:
About
36 or 38 ATP
2 FADH2
Oxidative
phosphorylation:
electron transport
and
chemiosmosis
+ about 32 or 34 ATP
Fig. 9-16
H+
H+
H+
H+
Protein complex
of electron
carriers
Cyt c
V
Q


ATP
synthase

FADH2
NADH
2 H+ + 1/2O2
H2O
FAD
NAD+
ADP + P i
(carrying electrons
from food)
ATP
H+
1 Electron transport chain
Oxidative phosphorylation
2 Chemiosmosis
Fig. 10-21
H2O
CO2
Light
NADP+
ADP
+ P
i
Light
Reactions:
Photosystem II
Electron transport chain
Photosystem I
Electron transport chain
RuBP
ATP
NADPH
3-Phosphoglycerate
Calvin
Cycle
G3P
Starch
(storage)
Chloroplast
O2
Sucrose (export)
Fig. 11-8-5
Hormone
(testosterone)
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Plasma
membrane
Receptor
protein
Hormonereceptor
complex
DNA
mRNA
NUCLEUS
CYTOPLASM
New protein
Fig. 12-6
G2 of Interphase
Centrosomes
Chromatin
(with centriole (duplicated)
pairs)
Prophase
Early mitotic Aster Centromere
spindle
Nucleolus Nuclear Plasma
envelope membrane
Chromosome, consisting
of two sister chromatids
Metaphase
Prometaphase
Fragments Nonkinetochore
of nuclear
microtubules
envelope
Kinetochore
Kinetochore
microtubule
Anaphase
Cleavage
furrow
Metaphase
plate
Spindle
Centrosome at
one spindle pole
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Daughter
chromosomes
Nuclear
envelope
forming
Nucleolus
forming
Fig. 13-8
Metaphase I
Prophase I
Centrosome
(with centriole pair)
Sister
chromatids
Chiasmata
Spindle
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II and
Cytokinesis
Sister chromatids
remain attached
Centromere
(with kinetochore)
Metaphase
plate
Homologous
chromosomes
separate
Homologous
chromosomes
Fragments
of nuclear
envelope
Telophase I and
Cytokinesis
Anaphase I
Microtubule
attached to
kinetochore
Cleavage
furrow
Sister chromatids
separate
Haploid daughter cells
forming
Fig. 13-9
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
Parent cell
Chromosome
replication
Prophase
Chiasma
Chromosome
replication
Prophase I
Homologous
chromosome
pair
2n = 6
Replicated chromosome
MEIOSIS I
Metaphase
Metaphase I
Anaphase
Telophase
Anaphase I
Telophase I
Haploid
n=3
Daughter
cells of
meiosis I
2n
MEIOSIS II
2n
Daughter cells
of mitosis
n
n
n
n
Daughter cells of meiosis II
SUMMARY
Property
Mitosis
Meiosis
DNA
replication
Occurs during interphase before
mitosis begins
Occurs during interphase before meiosis I begins
Number of
divisions
One, including prophase, metaphase,
anahase, and telophase
Two, each including prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase
Synapsis of
homologous
chromosomes
Does not occur
Occurs during prophase I along with crossing over
between nonsister chromatids; resulting chiasmata
hold pairs together due to sister chromatid cohesion
Number of
daughter cells
and genetic
composition
Two, each diploid (2n) and genetically
identical to the parent cell
Four, each haploid (n), containing half as many chromosomes
as the parent cell; genetically different from the parent
cell and from each other
Role in the
animal body
Enables multicellular adult to arise from
zygote; produces cells for growth, repair,
and, in some species, asexual reproduction
Produces gametes; reduces number of chromosomes by half
and introduces genetic variability amoung the gametes
Fig. 14-8a
EXPERIMENT
YYRR
P Generation
Gametes YR
yyrr

F1 Generation
YyRr
Hypothesis of
independent
assortment
Hypothesis of
dependent
assortment
Predictions
Predicted
offspring of
F2 generation
yr
Sperm
or
1/
4
Sperm
1/
1/
2 YR
2 yr
1/
4
1/
2
1/
4
1/
4
Yr
yR
1/
4
yr
YR
YYRR YYRr
YyRR
YyRr
YYRr
YYrr
YyRr
Yyrr
YyRR
YyRr
yyRR
yyRr
YyRr
Yyrr
yyRr
yyrr
YR
YYRR
Eggs
1/
2
YR
YyRr
1/
4
Yr
Eggs
yr
yyrr
YyRr
3/
4
1/
4
yR
1/
4
Phenotypic ratio 3:1
1/
4
yr
9/
16
3/
16
3/
16
1/
16
Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1
Fig. 14-UN2
Degree of dominance
Complete dominance
of one allele
Example
Description
Heterozygous phenotype
PP
same as that of homozygous dominant
Pp
Incomplete dominance Heterozygous phenotype
intermediate between
of either allele
the two homozygous
phenotypes
CRCR
Codominance
Heterozygotes: Both
phenotypes expressed
CRCW CWCW
IAIB
Multiple alleles
In the whole population, ABO blood group alleles
some genes have more
IA , IB , i
than two alleles
Pleiotropy
One gene is able to
affect multiple
phenotypic characters
Sickle-cell disease
Fig. 14-UN3
Relationship among
genes
Epistasis
Example
Description
One gene affects
the expression of
another
BbCc
BbCc
BC bC Bc bc
BC
bC
Bc
bc
9
Polygenic
inheritance
A single phenotypic
AaBbCc
character is
affected by
two or more genes
:3
:4
AaBbCc
Fig. 15-2b
All F1 plants produce
yellow-round seeds (YyRr)
0.5 mm
F1 Generation
R
R
y
r
Y
LAW OF SEGREGATION
The two alleles for each gene
separate during gamete
formation.
y
r
Y
LAW OF INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT Alleles of genes
on nonhomologous
chromosomes assort
independently during gamete
formation.
Meiosis
r
R
Y
y
r
R
Metaphase I
Y
y
1
1
r
R
r
R
Y
y
Anaphase I
Y
y
r
R
Metaphase II
R
r
2
2
Gametes
y
Y
Y
R
R
1
4
YR
r
1
3
4
yr
Y
Y
y
r
y
Y
y
Y
r
r
14
Yr
y
y
R
R
14
yR
3
Fig. 15-13-3
Meiosis I
Nondisjunction
Meiosis II
Nondisjunction
Gametes
n+1
n+1
n–1
n–1
n+1
n–1
n
Number of chromosomes
(a) Nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes in meiosis I
(b) Nondisjunction of sister
chromatids in meiosis II
n
Fig. 15-16b
Fig. 15-11
RESULTS
Recombination
frequencies
9%
Chromosome
9.5%
17%
b
cn
vg
Fig. 16-7
5 end
Hydrogen bond
3 end
1 nm
3.4 nm
3 end
0.34 nm
(a) Key features of DNA structure (b) Partial chemical structure
5 end
(c) Space-filling model
Fig. 16-17
Overview
Origin of replication
Lagging strand
Leading strand
Leading strand
Lagging strand
Overall directions
of replication
Single-strand
binding protein
Helicase
5
Leading strand
3
DNA pol III
3
Parental DNA
Primer
5
Primase
3
DNA pol III
Lagging strand
5
4
DNA pol I
3 5
3
2
DNA ligase
1
3
5
Fig. 16-UN3
DNA pol III synthesizes
leading strand continuously
Parental
DNA
3
5
DNA pol III starts DNA
synthesis at 3 end of primer,
continues in 5  3 direction
5
3
5
Primase synthesizes
a short RNA primer
Lagging strand synthesized
in short Okazaki fragments,
later joined by DNA ligase
3
5
Fig. 17-3b-3
Nuclear
envelope
DNA
TRANSCRIPTION
Pre-mRNA
RNA PROCESSING
mRNA
TRANSLATION
Ribosome
Polypeptide
(b) Eukaryotic cell
Fig. 17-7
Promoter
Transcription unit
5
3
Start point
RNA polymerase
3
5
DNA
1 Initiation
5
3
RNA
transcript
RNA
polymerase
Template strand
of DNA
3
2 Elongation
Rewound
DNA
5
3
RNA nucleotides
3
5
Unwound
DNA
3
5
5
5
Direction of
transcription
(“downstream”)
3 Termination
3
5
5
3
5
3 end
5
3
RNA
transcript
Nontemplate
strand of DNA
Elongation
Completed RNA transcript
3
Newly made
RNA
Template
strand of DNA
Fig. 17-16b
P site (Peptidyl-tRNA
binding site)
E site
(Exit site)
A site (AminoacyltRNA binding site)
E P A
mRNA
binding site
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
(b) Schematic model showing binding sites
Growing polypeptide
Amino end
Next amino acid
to be added to
polypeptide chain
E
tRNA
3
mRNA
5
Codons
(c) Schematic model with mRNA and tRNA
Fig. 18-6
Signal
NUCLEUS
Chromatin
Chromatin modification
DNA
Gene available
for transcription
Gene
Transcription
RNA
Exon
Primary transcript
Intron
RNA processing
Tail
Cap
mRNA in nucleus
Transport to cytoplasm
CYTOPLASM
mRNA in cytoplasm
Degradation
of mRNA
Translatio
n
Polypeptide
Protein processing
Active protein
Degradation
of protein
Transport to cellular
destination
Cellular function
Fig. 18-UN4
Chromatin modification
• Genes in highly compacted
chromatin are generally not
transcribed.
• Histone acetylation seems to
loosen chromatin structure,
enhancing transcription.
• DNA methylation generally
reduces transcription.
Transcription
• Regulation of transcription initiation:
DNA control elements bind specific
transcription factors.
Bending of the DNA enables activators to
contact proteins at the promoter, initiating
transcription.
• Coordinate regulation:
Enhancer for
liver-specific genes
Enhancer for
lens-specific genes
Chromatin modification
Transcription
RNA processing
RNA processing
• Alternative RNA splicing:
Primary RNA
transcript
mRNA
degradation
Translation
mRNA
or
Protein processing
and degradation
Translation
• Initiation of translation can be controlled
via regulation of initiation factors.
mRNA degradation
• Each mRNA has a
characteristic life span,
determined in part by
sequences in the 5 and
3 UTRs.
Protein processing and degradation
• Protein processing and
degradation by proteasomes
are subject to regulation.
Fig. 19-8a
Glycoprotein
Viral envelope
Capsid
Reverse
transcriptase
RNA (two
identical
strands)
HOST CELL
HIV
Reverse
transcriptase
Viral RNA
RNA-DNA
hybrid
DNA
NUCLEUS
Provirus
Chromosomal
DNA
RNA genome
for the
next viral
generation
New virus
mRNA
Fig. 20-2
Cell containing gene
of interest
Bacterium
1 Gene inserted into
plasmid
Bacterial
Plasmid
chromosome
Recombinant
DNA (plasmid)
Gene of
interest
DNA of
chromosome
2 Plasmid put into
bacterial cell
Recombinant
bacterium
3 Host cell grown in culture
to form a clone of cells
containing the “cloned”
gene of interest
Gene of
Interest
Protein expressed
by gene of interest
Copies of gene
Basic
Protein harvested
4 Basic research and
various applications
research
on gene
Gene for pest
resistance inserted
into plants
Gene used to alter
bacteria for cleaning
up toxic waste
Protein dissolves
blood clots in heart
attack therapy
Basic
research
on protein
Human growth hormone treats stunted
growth
Fig. 20-20
Embryonic stem cells
Adult stem cells
Early human embryo
at blastocyst stage
(mammalian equivalent of blastula)
From bone marrow
in this example
Cells generating
all embryonic
cell types
Cells generating
some cell types
Cultured
stem cells
Different
culture
conditions
Different
types of
differentiated
cells
Liver cells
Nerve cells
Blood cells
Fig. 22-UN1
Observations
Individuals in a population
vary in their heritable
characteristics.
Organisms produce more
offspring than the
environment can support.
Inferences
Individuals that are well suited
to their environment tend to leave
more offspring than other individuals
and
Over time, favorable traits
accumulate in the population.
Fig. 23-13
Original population
Original
Evolved
population population
(a) Directional selection
Phenotypes (fur color)
(b) Disruptive selection
(c) Stabilizing
selection
Fig. 24-14-4
Isolated population
diverges
Possible
outcomes:
Hybrid
zone
Reinforcement
OR
Fusion
Gene flow
Hybrid
Population
(five individuals
are shown)
OR
Barrier to
gene flow
Stability
Table 40-1
Fig. 40-17
External
environment
Animal
body
Organic molecules
in food
Digestion and
absorption
Heat
Energy lost
in feces
Nutrient molecules
in body cells
Carbon
skeletons
Cellular
respiration
Energy lost in
nitrogenous
waste
Heat
ATP
Biosynthesis
Cellular
work
Heat
Heat
Fig. 41-10
Tongue
Sphincter
Salivary
glands
Oral cavity
Salivary glands
Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Esophagus
Sphincter
Liver
Stomach
Ascending
portion of
large intestine
Gallbladder
Gallbladder
Duodenum of
small intestine
Pancreas
Liver
Small
intestine
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
Appendix
Cecum
Pancreas
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
Anus
A schematic diagram of the
human digestive system
Fig. 41-13
Carbohydrate digestion
Oral cavity,
pharynx,
esophagus
Protein digestion
Nucleic acid digestion
Fat digestion
Polysaccharides Disaccharides
(starch, glycogen)
(sucrose, lactose)
Salivary amylase
Smaller polysaccharides,
maltose
Stomach
Proteins
Pepsin
Small polypeptides
Lumen of
small intestine
Polysaccharides
Pancreatic amylases
Polypeptides
Pancreatic trypsin and
chymotrypsin
DNA, RNA
Fat globules
Pancreatic
nucleases
Bile salts
Maltose and other
disaccharides
Nucleotides
Fat droplets
Smaller
polypeptides
Pancreatic lipase
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Glycerol, fatty
acids, monoglycerides
Amino acids
Epithelium
of small
intestine
(brush
border)
Small peptides
Disaccharidases
Monosaccharides
Nucleotidases
Nucleosides
Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase,
and aminopeptidase
Amino acids
Nucleosidases
and
phosphatases
Nitrogenous bases,
sugars, phosphates
Fig. 42-UN2
Inhaled air
Alveolar
epithelial cells
Pulmonary arteries
Exhaled air
Alveolar spaces
CO2
O2
Alveolar
capillaries of
lung
Systemic veins
Pulmonary veins
Systemic arteries
Heart
Systemic
capillaries
CO2
O2
Body tissue
Fig. 42-6
Superior
vena cava
Capillaries of
head and
forelimbs
7
Pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary
artery
Capillaries
of right lung
Aorta
9
3
Capillaries
of left lung
3
2
4
11
Pulmonary
vein
Right atrium
1
Pulmonary
vein
5
Left atrium
10
Right ventricle
Left ventricle
Inferior
vena cava
Aorta
8
Capillaries of
abdominal organs
and hind limbs
Fig. 42-7
Pulmonary artery
Aorta
Pulmonary
artery
Right
atrium
Left
atrium
Semilunar
valve
Semilunar
valve
Atrioventricular
valve
Atrioventricular
valve
Right
ventricle
Left
ventricle
Fig. 42-24
Branch of
pulmonary
vein
(oxygen-rich
blood)
Branch of
pulmonary
artery
(oxygen-poor
blood)
Terminal
bronchiole
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Alveoli
(Esophagus)
Left
lung
Trachea
Right lung
Bronchus
Bronchiole
Diaphragm
Heart
SEM
50 µm
Colorized
SEM
50 µm
Fig. 42-25
Rib cage
expands as
rib muscles
contract
Air
inhaled
Rib cage gets
smaller as
rib muscles
relax
Air
exhaled
Lung
Diaphragm
INHALATION
Diaphragm contracts
(moves down)
EXHALATION
Diaphragm relaxes
(moves up)
Fig. 42-27
Cerebrospinal
fluid
Pons
Breathing
control
centers
Medulla
oblongata
Carotid
arteries
Aorta
Diaphragm
Rib muscles
Fig. 43-2
Pathogens
(microorganisms
and viruses)
INNATE IMMUNITY
• Recognition of traits
shared by broad ranges
of pathogens, using a
small set of receptors
• Rapid response
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
• Recognition of traits
specific to particular
pathogens, using a vast
array of receptors
• Slower response
Barrier defenses:
Skin
Mucous membranes
Secretions
Internal defenses:
Phagocytic cells
Antimicrobial proteins
Inflammatory response
Natural killer cells
Humoral response:
Antibodies defend against
infection in body fluids.
Cell-mediated response:
Cytotoxic lymphocytes defend
against infection in body cells.
Fig. 43-8-3
Pathogen
Splinter
Chemical Macrophage
signals
Mast cell
Capillary
Red blood cells Phagocytic cell
Fluid
Phagocytosis
Fig. 43-15
Antibody concentration
(arbitrary units)
Primary immune response
to antigen A produces
antibodies to A.
Secondary immune response to
antigen A produces antibodies to A;
primary immune response to antigen
B produces antibodies to B.
104
103
Antibodies
to A
102
Antibodies
to B
101
100
0
7
Exposure
to antigen A
14
21
28
35
42
Exposure to
antigens A and B
Time (days)
49
56
Fig. 43-16
Humoral (antibody-mediated) immune response
Cell-mediated immune response
Key
Antigen (1st exposure)
+
Engulfed by
Gives rise to
Antigenpresenting cell
+
Stimulates
+
+
B cell
Helper T cell
+
Cytotoxic T cell
+
Memory
Helper T cells
+
+
+
Antigen (2nd exposure)
Plasma cells
Memory B cells
+
Memory
Cytotoxic T cells
Active
Cytotoxic T cells
Secreted
antibodies
Defend against extracellular pathogens by binding to antigens,
thereby neutralizing pathogens or making them better targets
for phagocytes and complement proteins.
Defend against intracellular pathogens
and cancer by binding to and lysing the
infected cells or cancer cells.
Fig. 44-14c
Juxtamedullary
nephron
Cortical
nephron
Renal
cortex
Collecting
duct
To
renal
pelvis
(c) Nephron types
Renal
medulla
Fig. 44-14d
10 µm
Afferent arteriole
from renal artery
SEM
Glomerulus
Bowman’s capsule
Proximal tubule
Peritubular capillaries
Efferent
arteriole from
glomerulus
Distal
tubule
Branch of
renal vein
Collecting
duct
Descending
limb
Loop of
Henle
(d) Filtrate and blood flow
Ascending
limb
Vasa
recta
Fig. 40-16
Sweat glands secrete
sweat, which evaporates,
cooling the body.
Body temperature
decreases;
thermostat
shuts off cooling
mechanisms.
Thermostat in hypothalamus
activates cooling mechanisms.
Blood vessels
in skin dilate:
capillaries fill;
heat radiates
from skin.
Increased body
temperature
Homeostasis:
Internal temperature
of 36–38°C
Body temperature
increases; thermostat
shuts off warming
mechanisms.
Decreased body
temperature
Blood vessels in skin
constrict, reducing
heat loss.
Skeletal muscles contract;
shivering generates heat.
Thermostat in
hypothalamus
activates warming
mechanisms.
Fig. 46-10
Oviduct
Ovary
Uterus
(Urinary bladder)
(Pubic bone)
(Rectum)
Cervix
Urethra
Shaft
Glans
Prepuce
Vagina
Labia minora
Labia majora
Vaginal opening
Ovaries
Clitoris
Oviduct
Follicles
Uterus
Corpus luteum
Uterine wall
Endometrium
Cervix
Vagina
Fig. 46-11
Seminal
vesicle
(behind
bladder)
(Urinary
bladder)
Prostate gland
Urethra
Scrotum
Bulbourethral
gland
Erectile tissue
of penis
Vas deferens
Epididymis
Testis
(Urinary
bladder)
(Urinary
duct)
Seminal vesicle
(Rectum)
Vas deferens
(Pubic bone)
Ejaculatory duct
Erectile
tissue
Prostate gland
Urethra
Penis
Bulbourethral gland
Vas deferens
Epididymis
Testis
Scrotum
Glans
Prepuce
Fig. 46-12a
Epididymis
Seminiferous tubule
Testis
Cross section
of seminiferous
tubule
Primordial germ cell in embryo
Mitotic divisions
Sertoli cell
nucleus
Spermatogonial
stem cell
2n
Mitotic divisions
Spermatogonium
2n
Mitotic divisions
Primary spermatocyte
2n
Meiosis I
Lumen of
seminiferous tubule
Secondary spermatocyte
n
n
Meiosis II
Neck
Tail
Midpiece
Head
Spermatids
(at two stages of
differentiation)
Early
spermatid
n
n
n
n
n
n
Differentiation
(Sertoli cells
provide nutrients)
Plasma membrane
Mitochondria
Sperm
Nucleus
Acrosome
n
n
Fig. 46-12e
Ovary
Primary
oocyte
within
follicle
In embryo
Growing
follicle
Primordial germ cell
Mitotic divisions
2n
Oogonium
Mitotic divisions
Primary oocyte
(present at birth), arrested
in prophase of meiosis I
2n
Completion of meiosis I
and onset of meiosis II
First
polar n
body
n
Secondary oocyte,
arrested at metaphase of
meiosis II
Mature follicle
Ruptured
follicle
Ovulated
secondary oocyte
Ovulation, sperm entry
Completion of meiosis II
Second
polar n
body
Corpus luteum
n
Fertilized egg
Degenerating
corpus luteum
Fig. 46-16
Maternal
arteries
Maternal
veins
Placenta
Maternal
portion
of placenta
Umbilical cord
Chorionic villus,
containing fetal
capillaries
Maternal blood
pools
Uterus
Fetal arteriole
Fetal venule
Umbilical cord
Fetal
portion of
placenta
(chorion)
Umbilical
arteries
Umbilical
vein
Fig. 46-18
from
ovaries
Oxytocin
+
from fetus
and mother’s
posterior pituitary
Positive feedback
Estradiol
Induces oxytocin
receptors on uterus
Stimulates uterus
to contract
Stimulates
placenta to make
Prostaglandins
Stimulate more
contractions
of uterus
+
Fig. 48-3
Sensory input
Integration
Sensor
Motor output
Effector
Peripheral nervous
system (PNS)
Central nervous
system (CNS)
Fig. 48-10-5
Key
Na+
K+
3
4
Rising phase of the action potential
Falling phase of the action potential
Membrane potential
(mV)
+50
Action
potential
–50
2
2
4
Threshold
1
1
5
Resting potential
Depolarization
Extracellular fluid
3
0
–100
Sodium
channel
Time
Potassium
channel
Plasma
membrane
Cytosol
Inactivation loop
5
1
Resting state
Undershoot
Fig. 48-15
5
Synaptic vesicles
containing
neurotransmitter
Voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel
Postsynaptic
membrane
1 Ca2+
4
2
Synaptic
cleft
Presynaptic
membrane
3
Ligand-gated
ion channels
6
K+
Na+
Fig. 49-3
Quadriceps
muscle
Cell body of
sensory neuron in
dorsal root
ganglion
Gray
matter
White
matter
Hamstring
muscle
Spinal cord
(cross section)
Sensory neuron
Motor neuron
Interneuron
Fig. 50-27-4
Thick filament
Thin
filaments
Thin filament
Myosin head (lowenergy configuration
ATP
ATP
Thick
filament
Thin filament moves
toward center of sarcomere.
Actin
ADP
Myosin head (lowenergy configuration
ADP
+ Pi
Pi
ADP
Pi
Cross-bridge
Myosin
binding sites
Myosin head (highenergy configuration
Fig. 55-4
Tertiary consumers
Microorganisms
and other
detritivores
Detritus
Secondary
consumers
Primary consumers
Primary producers
Heat
Key
Chemical cycling
Energy flow
Sun
Fig. 55-10
Tertiary
consumers
Secondary
consumers
10 J
100 J
Primary
consumers
1,000 J
Primary
producers
10,000 J
1,000,000 J of sunlight
Fig. 55-14a
Transport
over land
Solar energy
Net movement of
water vapor by wind
Precipitation Evaporation
over ocean
from ocean
Precipitation
over land
Evapotranspiration
from land
Percolation
through
soil
Runoff and
groundwater
Fig. 55-14b
CO2 in atmosphere
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
Cellular
respiration
Burning of
fossil fuels Phytoand wood plankton
Higher-level
consumers
Primary
consumers
Carbon compounds
in water
Detritus
Decomposition
Fig. 55-14c
N2 in atmosphere
Assimilation
NO3–
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria
Decomposers
Ammonification
NH3
Nitrogen-fixing
soil bacteria
Nitrification
NH4+
NO2–
Nitrifying
bacteria
Denitrifying
bacteria
Nitrifying
bacteria
Fig. 55-14d
Precipitation
Geologic
uplift
Weathering
of rocks
Runoff
Consumption
Decomposition
Plant
uptake
of PO43–
Plankton Dissolved PO43–
Uptake
Sedimentation
Soil
Leaching
Fig. 55-UN2
Organic
materials
available
as nutrients
Organic
materials
unavailable
as nutrients
Fossilization
Living
organisms,
detritus
Assimilation,
photosynthesis
Coal, oil,
peat
Respiration,
decomposition,
excretion
Inorganic
materials
available
as nutrients
Atmosphere,
soil, water
Burning
of fossil
fuels
Weathering,
erosion
Formation of
sedimentary rock
Inorganic
materials
unavailable
as nutrients
Minerals
in rocks
Fig. 56-UN1
Genetic diversity: source of variations that enable
populations to adapt to environmental changes
Species diversity: important in maintaining structure
of communities and food webs
Ecosystem diversity: Provide life-sustaining services
such as nutrient cycling and waste decomposition
Fig. 35-2
Reproductive shoot (flower)
Apical bud
Node
Internode
Apical
bud
Vegetative
shoot
Leaf
Shoot
system
Blade
Petiole
Axillary
bud
Stem
Taproot
Lateral
branch
roots
Root
system
Fig. 35-14a2
(a) Root with xylem and phloem in the center
(typical of eudicots)
Endodermis
Key
to labels
Pericycle
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Xylem
Phloem
50 µm
Fig. 36-2-3
CO2
O2
Light
H 2O
Sugar
O2
H2O
and
minerals
CO2
Fig. 36-20
Vessel
(xylem)
Sieve tube Source cell
(phloem) (leaf)
H2O
1 Loading of sugar
Sucrose
1
H2O
Bulk flow by negative pressure
Bulk flow by positive pressure
2
2 Uptake of water
3 Unloading of sugar
Sink cell
(storage
root)
4 Water recycled
3
4
H2O
Sucrose
Fig. 38-2
Germinated pollen grain (n)
(male gametophyte)
Anther
Stamen
Anther
Stigma
Carpel
Style
Filament
Ovary
Pollen tube
Ovary
Ovule
Embryo sac (n)
(female gametophyte)
FERTILIZATION
Sepal
Petal
Egg (n)
Sperm (n)
Receptacle
(a) Structure of an idealized flower
Key
Zygote
(2n)
Mature sporophyte
plant (2n)
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Seed
Germinating
seed
Seed
Embryo (2n)
(sporophyte)
(b) Simplified angiosperm life cycle
Simple fruit
Fig. 38-2b
Germinated pollen grain (n)
(male gametophyte)
Anther
Ovary
Pollen tube
Ovule
Embryo sac (n)
(female gametophyte)
FERTILIZATION
Egg (n)
Sperm (n)
Key
Zygote
(2n)
Mature sporophyte
plant (2n)
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Germinating
seed
Seed
Seed
Embryo (2n)
(sporophyte)
(b) Simplified angiosperm life cycle
Simple fruit
Fig. 39-3
CELL
WALL
1 Reception
CYTOPLASM
2 Transduction
Relay proteins and
second messengers
Receptor
Hormone or
environmental
stimulus
Plasma membrane
3 Response
Activation
of cellular
responses
Fig. 39-4-3
1
Reception
2
Transduction
3
Response
Transcription
factor 1
CYTOPLASM
Plasma
membrane
cGMP
Second messenger
produced
Specific
protein
kinase 1
activated
NUCLEUS
P
Transcription
factor 2
Phytochrome
activated
by light
P
Cell
wall
Specific
protein
kinase 2
activated
Transcription
Light
Translation
Ca2+ channel
opened
Ca2+
De-etiolation
(greening)
response
proteins
Table 39-1
Fig. 39-11
1 Gibberellins (GA)
2 Aleurone secretes
send signal to
aleurone.
-amylase and other enzymes.
3 Sugars and other
nutrients are consumed.
Aleurone
Endosperm
-amylase
GA
GA
Water
Scutellum
(cotyledon)
Radicle
Sugar