Download Perceptions and Adaptation Measures of Crop

FIRE Journal of Science and Technology, 3(1)., (2015) 286-298
ISSN 2321-2039
Perceptions and Adaptation Measures of Crop Farmers and AgroPastoralists in the Eastern and Plateau Central Regions of Burkina
Faso, West Africa.
1*
2
3
SANFO Abroulaye , SAWADOGO Issa , KULO E. Abalo and ZAMPALIGRE Nouhoun
1
2
4
SANFO Abroulaye, Ministry of Animal Husbandry, BP 490 ZINIARE, Burkina Faso;
IUCN (International Union for the Conservation of Nature)/Program of Burkina Faso
3
4
Université de Lomé; Togo
Institute of’ Environment and Agricultural Research (INERA), Burkina Faso
ABSTRACT
This paper assesses farmer’s perception of climate change and variability indicators, identifies and analyses their local
knowledge about adaptation measures to climate change. For that, household interviews (100) and focus group discussions
were conducted. The findings showed that Farmers have a good perception of climate change indicators, but their
indigenous knowledge about the season prediction has been challenged. Climate change and variability are impacting land
degradation and livestock health. Livestock diversification and mobility are agro-pastoralists’ adaptation measures whereas
crop farmers are more and more interested in livestock production.
Keywords: Climate Change, Indicators, Adaptation, Local communities, Burkina Faso
INTODUCTION
Global temperature and sea level are rising due particularly to the increase of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere
(IPCC, 2007). Consequently, the world is facing greater weather extreme events such as heat waves, cyclones, tsunamis,
droughts and floods (IPCC, 2007; Brooks, 2013, Zampaligre et al., 2013). These phenomena are affecting negatively the
African farmers’ livelihoods, and particularly marginalized groups in the poorest regions, even though they are least
responsible for these changes (Thornton et al,. 2006; Gbetibouo, 2009; UNDP, 2009).
Agricultural sector is one of the most vulnerable to climate change impacts (Pearce, 2003; McCarthy et al., 2001; Jones and
Thomton, 2009, IUCN, 2010). For instance, if nothing is done about adaptation measures, agriculture net revenues will
significantly decrease in Africa (Kurukulasuriya and Mendelsohn, 2008; Namrata et al.; 2012).
Burkina Faso agricultural sector has been identified by National Adaptation Program of Action (NAPA/PANA) as very
vulnerable to climate change, while, 82.5% of the population lives in rural area, and 86% practice agricultural activities
(SP/CONEDD/PANA, 2007). It has identified the decrease in crop yields, forage and water resources, diminution of grazing
areas and livestock productivity as major threats of climate change to agricultural sector.
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Several empirical studies showed that negative effects of climate change on African agriculture can be signi ficantly reduced
through a better knowledge about the change in climate indicators, its impacts and adaptation (Benhin, 2006; Maddison,
2006; Mano and Nhemachena, 2006; Seo and Mendelsohn, 2006; IPCC, 2007; Zampaligre et al., 2013).
Some studies have investigated farmers’ perception of climate change and variability, and their adaptation practices in West
Africa (Brooks 2006; Nori et al., 2008; West et al., 2008; Barbier et al., 2009; Mertz et al., 2009; Wongtschowski et al., 2009),
but focused on national and regional level (Ouedraogo et al., 2010; Mertz et al., 2011) using mostly the temperature, annual
rainfall, and the length of rainy season. Climate change processes are global but its impacts, vulnerability and adaptation are
more local (Brown and al., 2007; Muna, 2009; Salack, 2012). In Burkina Faso, few studies have concerned crop farmers and
agropastoralists/pastoralists’ perception of climate change indicators at more local level (Zampaligre et al, 2013; Kiema et al,
2013). These studies have considered the climatic indicators such as, drought and flood frequency, rainfall distribution, onset
and cessation; and also their perception about these climate change impacts on their activities. Therefore, this paper
attempts to assess at local scale farmers’perception of climate change indicators and impacts in Burkina Faso.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Sites
The study was carried out in two villages namely, Matiacoli and Boudry by taking into account the itineraries of
transhumance routes, existence of pastoral zone or pastoral potentialities (reserves, park, forest), the frequency and
magnitude (number per year) of conflicts between agro-pastoralists and crop farmers. The villages (figure1) belong to the
same agro-ecologic zone (Northern Sudanian) with 600–900 mm as annual rainfall, 50–70 rainy days per season, 150 days as
length of rainy season and 28 oC as mean annual temperature (PANA, 2007). Farmers cultivate sorghum, maize, rice, and
cotton, while, cattle, sheep and goats are the most important livestock species kept by agro-pastoralists/pastoralists.
Figure 1: Map of the study site
Data collection
We used the rational method of sampling to identify the two groups (agro-pastoralists and crop farmers). An agropastoralist is someone who has as main activity animal husbandry and using directly natural resources for feeding and
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watering his livestock on an undetermined or defined space implying the mobility of his livestock. He must take from it his
essential income (Ellis, 1988). He should have also own at least 20 heads of livestock (big or small ruminants) where he is the
exclusive or partial owner because cattle herd size has been found as a determinant factor for the practice of transhumance
(Zampaligre et al., 2013). Whereas a crop farmer is someone who has as main activity crop production in which he earns his
main source of income. The households were at least 45 years old in order to be able to appreciate the change. Once these
criteria are met, randomly and transect methods, 25 agro-pastoralists and 25 crop farmers’ households were interviewed in
each villages; which amounted to 100 households in the two villages. The interviewed focused on farmers’ perception of
climate change and impacts by using variables such as drought, flood, migration, pasture scarcity.
A Semi-Structured Key Informant Interviews (SSKI) with 25 experts in various fields of rural development (rural
development projects workers, NGOs, associations, livestock and crop extension services agents involved in natural
resources management) was also done at local and regional levels.
A focus groups were done including male and female household members based on their willingness to participate in the
study. The tools such as “resources mapping”, “historical timeline”, “and seasonal calendar” was used (ENDA, 2013).
To show the change in climate parameters, rainfall and temperature data (annually data) from nearness synoptic stations
(Ouagadougou for Boudry and Fada for Matiacoali) were collected for the period 1970-2010. This period was considered
because it includes the major climatic hazards such as drought and flood (CRED/EM-DA, 2013), and which are supposed to
be the impacts of major changes in the climate (IPCC, 2001).
Data Analysis
The annual patterns of the rainfall and temperature are examined for two sites. The standardized rainfall anomalies (Lamb
index) were calculated and graphically presented to evaluate inter-annual fluctuations of rainfall in the study areas over the
period of observation, which is described as:
 SRA = (Pt − Pm)/ δ
SRA = Standardized Rainfall Anomaly; Pt = annual rainfall in year t; Pm = long-term mean annual rainfall over the period of
observation; δ = standard deviation of annual rainfall over the period of observation.
Then, the following periods have been identified (Dereje et al., 2012): Wet period: SRA > 0.5; Normal period: -0.5 ≤ SRA ≤
+0.5; and Dry period: SRA < -0.5).
 STA = (Tt − Tm)
STA = Standardized Temperature Anomaly= Lamb index; Tt = annual mean temperature in year t; Tm = long-term mean
annual mean temperature over the period of observation
Hot period: STA > 0.5; Normal period: -0.5 ≤ STA ≤ +0.5; and Cold period: STA < -0.5
The qualitative data were codified in quantitative form in the software EpiData 3.1 which was used for the data entry. We
used Excel (2013) for figures drawing, while, SPSS software version 20 was used to perform both descriptive and analytical
statistics (Chi-Square and Mann-Kendall Tests) with a conventional significance level of p <0.05.
RESULTS
Crop Farmers and Agro-Pastoralist Perception of Climate Change and Variability Indicators
Unanimously both in Boudry and Matiacoali agro-pastoralists discern some changes concerning rainfall and temperature
patterns (table1). Respectively 80% and 100% of them in Boudry and Matiacoali perceive a decrease of annual rainfall with a
significant difference (P < 0.05) between the two sites. This decrease may result in a reduction of the number of rains per
year and a shortening of rainy season. Indeed, respectively 96% (100% in Boudry and 92% in Matiacoali) and 92% discern a
late onset and an early cessation (table1). That is why 88% of them think that the length of growing season is becoming
shorter. Even so, respectively 46% and 77% (with significant difference at 5% between Boudry and Matiacoali) of them think
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that rainfall intensity and floods frequency are increasing; more than 90% perceived a bad temporal distribution of this
rainfall, and also an increase of drought frequency (100%), heat magnitude (94%) and duration (90%). Finally, they
recognized at 88% (80% in Boudry and 96% in Matiacoali) that they are not able to predict the season because their local
indicators are no longer working (from shea and grapes trees flowering and fructification).
The similar results about the change in climate change indicators were confirmed by crop farmers without any significant
difference (P<0.05) between Boudry and Matiacoali (table3). However, crop farmers (64%) perception of the increase of
rainfall intensity is greater than the one of agro-pastoralists (46%).
Change in Rainfall and Temperature Patterns
The analysis of the standardized anomalies of annual rainfall in each locality for the time series 1970-2010 (figure 1) is
showing an important inter-annual rainfall variation within the same locality. The climate was especially dry in these Sudan
Savannah zones and precisely between 1973 -1982 and 1988-1994. These dry periods were very important and particularly in
Matiacoali with 35% of moderate to severe droughts against only 15% in Boudry. The 1973-1982 droughts correspond to those
that the West Africa Sahelian countries have known in 1970s and in the beginning of 1980s with huge socio-economic and
environmental impacts.
The analysis of rainfall data are also showing a decrease trend of rainfall as noted by farmers (figure 1). Even if these trends
are not significant in Boudry and Matiacoali (P < 0.05), they confirmed the perception of farmers who have observed a
decrease of rainfall. In addition, it corroborates the fact that the rainfall is decreasing rapidly in Matiacoaly than in Boudry
(0.036 > 0.0286).
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1.5
y = -0.006x + 0.140
R² = 0.028
1
Rainfall lamb index
Rainfall lamb index
Matiacoali (1970-2010)
Boudry (1970-2010)
2
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
y = -0.015x + 0.332
R² = 0.036
1970
1974
1978
1982
1986
1990
1994
1998
2002
2006
2010
-1.5
2010
2006
2002
1998
1994
1990
1986
1982
1978
1974
1970
-2
Year
Year
Linear (Lamb index)
Lamb index
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Lamb index
Linear (Lamb index)
Figure 1 : Lamb Index of Annual Rainfall in Boudry and Matiacoali for the Period 1970-2010 (Source: DGM).
The temperature data analysis for the two communes is showing a spatial and temporal (inter-annual) variability of the
temperature. The temperature has increased during the last forty years according to the positive coefficients of the trend
(figure 2). This trend is significant in Boudry (p-value = 0.002), unlike in Matiacoali (p-value = 1). The years 1984-1994 were
the cold period, while 2004-2010 were the hot one, corresponding to the perception of the majority of farmers (94%) who
think that the heat is increasing. This heat is not only about the intensity because they have perceived also an increase in the
length of the hot periods, therefore, a decrease in the length of the cold periods.
Matiacoali (1970-2010)
Boudry (1970-2010)
2
-1
-1.5
Year
Anomaly
Linear (Anomaly)
2010
2006
2002
-2
1998
2010
2006
2002
1998
1994
1990
1986
1982
1978
1974
1970
-2
-0.5
1994
-1.5
0
1990
-1
0.5
1986
-0.5
y = 0.0304x - 0.7971
R² = 0.6537
1982
0
1
1978
0.5
1.5
1974
y = 0.0077x - 0.1622
R² = 0.0437
1
1970
1.5
Mean temperature lamb index
Mean temperature lamb index
2
Year
Anomaly
Linear (Anomaly)
Figure 2 : Lamb index of annual mean temperature in Boudry and Matiacoali for the period 1970-2010 (Source,
DGM).
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The Impacts of Climate Change and Variability on Crop Farmers and Agro-Pastoralists’ Livelihoods
One of the direct impacts of climate change and variability that the local communities and especially agro-pastoralists have
discerned is the availability of pastoral resources. This availability is strongly affected by climate variability, and all (100%)
the respondents have observed a decrease in soil fertility, crop yield, pasture availability and livestock productivity in Boudry
as well as in Matiacoli (table 2). Climate change is impacting also livestock health (96% of respondents) and water
availability (80% and 100% of respondents respectively in Boudry and Matiacoli). However, the perception of farmers about
the impact of climate change on water availability is more significant (P<0.05) in Matiacoli than in Boudry.
Crop farmers have observed the similar impacts of climate change (on water availability and livestock health) like agropastoralists and have highlighted its impacts on soil fertility, land availability and crop yield (table 2)
To recall, 92% of respondents have identified a rainfall decrease, and what has been confirmed also by climate data analysis.
This imply the reduction of pasture and water resources underlined by farmers. Otherwise, the availability of water has been
perceived by 83% and 100% of respondents respectively in Boudry and Matiacoli as decreasing (table 2).
Livestock health worsening has been identified by 96% of agro-pastoralists as one possible impact of climate change (table
2). They have identified the trypanosomiasis and ticks as the most important health issue. However, for them drought and
flood can reduce considerably the availability and the quality of forage for livestock grazing, and increase livestock diseases.
Those effects associated with heat stress can affect livestock production. This is what all (100%) the respondents have
perceived by saying that climate change and variability can affect negatively livestock productivity and production. Also, all
(100%) of the respondents (both in Boudry and Matiacoali) think that climate change and variability can decrease soil
fertility and thereby crop yield (table 2).
Livestock health data analysis shows an increase trend of trypanosomiasis and ticks cases (figure 3), though the trends are
not significant in Matiacoali (p-value = 0.20) as in Boudry (p-value = 0.02). This confirms the perception of farmers who
have identified a recrudescence of these parasitosis. In fact, with rainfall variability, agro-pastoralists go to trans-boundary
transhumance toward Bénin, Togo and Ghana where the climate is more suitable for these pathologies. Then, they already
carry the germs before getting home in July.
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y = 0.076x - 0.315
R² = 0.073
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
Trypanosomiasis anomaly
2011
2009
2007
2005
2003
2001
Boudry
y = 0.024x - 0.174
R² = 0.009
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
1999
Year
Anomaly
Year
Linear (Anomaly)
Anomaly
Matiacoali
0
-1
y = 0.153x - 0.918
R² = 0.321
1.5
Tick lam index
1
0.5
0
-0.5
Anomaly
Linear (Anomaly)
Anomaly
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2005
2004
2003
-2
2002
Year
-1
-1.5
2001
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
-2
2000
Tick lam index
1
Boudry
2
y = -0.063x + 0.058
R² = 0.057
2
Linear (Anomaly)
2006
Trypanosomiasis anomaly
Matiacoali
ISSN 2321-2039
Linear (Anomaly)
Year
Figure 3 : Lamb index of annual cases of trypanosomiasis and tick in Boudry and Matiacoali (Source: MRAH, 2012).
Farmers’ Adaptation Measures to Climate Change
In order to respond to the uncertain climate, agro-pastoralists do mostly activities and species’ diversification; and also
livestock mobility (transhumance and migration). While crop farmers, in addition to their activities diversification, use
improved varieties and cropland expansion (table3).
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Table 1; Farmers’ adaptation measures to climate change and variability
Observed
parameters
Adaptation to
climate
change
impacts
Agropastoralists/
Pastoralists
(N =50)
Crop Farmers (N
=50)
Communes
Crosstabs
analysis
Results
Boudry
Matiacoali
ChiSquare
Tests
Diversification
Fodder cropping
96%
80%
92%
12%
0.552
0.0001
Transhumance
96%
76%
0.042
Diversification
Cropland
expansion
Use of improved
variety
Migration
Irrigation system
97%
100%
0.174
71%
53%
0.183
96%
83%
0.145
30%
11%
29%
6%
0.669
0.092
P<0.05
Species and Activities’ Diversification
Cattles do not constitute the only species raised in our two sites of survey. Our investigations reveal that small ruminants
(goat and sheep) are also presence within the households. Although, cattle remains the most important species according to
the respondents, the small ruminants are becoming more and more important because they are less vulnerable to warming
(requiring less water and food). For them, this is a risk-free strategy: the use of the scare natural resources by reducing the
risk of livestock losses during extreme climate events. For crop farmers, sorghum, corn and millet are the most important
crops cultivated. However, for economic reasons, sesame and cotton are taking an important dimension.
Our investigations found that crop production occupies a very important place within cattle breeders’ production systems
because 82% of them combine crop production and pastoralism (agro-pastoralism). It means that pure pastoralists are
shifting to agro-pastoralism. According to cattle farmers, one of the main reasons may be due to the hard climatic condition
with a scarcity of pastoral resources leading to a decrease in livestock productivity. Fulanis affirmed that in the past, milk
was the basis of their food. But, with the decrease in milk production, cereals consumption has become their food habits.
However, even though crop yield is decreasing, the demand is increasing with demographic growth. Consequently, cereals
are inaccessible because their prices have increased, making the exchange of products difficult, that was the main
mechanism by which Fulani pastoralists got cereals for their own consumption. This may be the reason why they are now
into crop production because they are convinced that livestock rearing cannot be their only source of food.
In addition to crop production, livestock breeders in Boudry are doing more significantly (P<0.05) fodder cropping than
those in Matiacoali. Agro-pastoralists in Boudry have been settled by the government in this zone only for livestock
activities and during the last years the Ministry of Animal Husbandry has encouraged them with the implementation of
fodder cropping policy. Also, 82% of crop farmers have associated cattle rearing activity in their farming system (table 4).
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Mobility
One of pastoralists’ features is their ability to move according to the constraints and the opportunities offered by the
climatic conditions. Among cattle rearing respondents, 86% (96% in Boudry and 76% in Matiacoali) practice transhumance.
With cropland fertility reduction, 62% of crop farmers reported that they had increased their cropland over year in order to
adapt to the climatic and edaphic conditions even though the use of improved variety (90% of respondents) remained one
solution (table3). This cropland expansion was pointed out by pastoralists as one of the factor which amplifies their
mobility.
During the last thirsty years, agro-pastoralists and pastoralists practice transboundary transhumance toward Benin, Togo
and Ghana, whereas, before this period they used to move to the neighbouring villages (local transhumance). Thus, at the
end of February when they finish to exploit the remaining crop residues around their villages, they leave to the northern
Benin, Togo (for those coming from Matiacoali), and Ghana (for those coming from Boudry) for water and green pasture.
They will come back in July with the onset of rainfall that allow the growth of herbaceous. According to breeders, the
present scarcity of water and pasturelands explain their early departure for transhumance and their belated coming back is
due also to the delay onset of the rainy season. This has been aggravated by the environmental policy of reserves creation
during these last years. The changes that agro-pastoralists have identify in their mobility patterns are the increase of
distances to find available resources and also the duration of transhumance period. The actors of transhumance are mostly
Fulani (96%), but in Matiacoali some Gourmantche (4%) do also this practice toward Benin and Togo.
Table 4 is well illustrating what has been said about the transformation of livestock and farming system over time. Farmers
are shifting from pure crop and livestock system to agro-pastoralism and crop-livestock system.
Table 2: Comparison between farmers’ current and past system of production
Communes
Crosstabs
analysis
Observed parameters
Results
Boudry
Matiacoali
Chi-Square
Tests
Present livestock system
Agro pastoralism
Pastoralism
96%
4%
76%
20%
0.042
0.082
Intensive livestock
0%
4%
0.312
Agro pastoralism
60%
64%
0.771
Pastoralism
40%
32%
0.556
Intensive livestock
0%
4%
0.312
Crop livestock
96%
67%
0.006
Crop livestock
81%
50%
0.017
Livestock
years ago
system
30
Major present crop
system
Major crop system 30
years ago
N = 50
N = 50
P<0.05
DISCUSSION
Farmers (crop and livestock farmers) in Sudan Savannah zone discern a decrease in rainfall and an increase in temperatures
with a shortening of rainy season. Also, drought and flooding are becoming more and more frequent and severe over the last
thirty years. Finally their indigenous knowledge (from shea and grapes flowering and fructification) for the season
prediction have been disrupted. The similar results were found by many authors (Lema and Majule, 2009, Wongtschowski et
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al., 2009; Zampaligré et al., 2013. Farmers’ perception has been confirmed by the climatic data analysis that showed a
decrease trend of rainfall with a frequency of moderate to severe drought, and an increase trend of temperature. In addition
the rainfall seams decrease significantly in Matiacoali than in Boudry
The NAPA of Burkina-Faso (2007) has also found a global decrease in rainfall and an increase in temperature throughout the
country between 1961-2000. However, Zampaligré et al., (2013) have found an increase in annual rainfall in the Southern
Sudanian region (Nobere) using 1998-2008 data series. Even though the data series (20 years) are not enough, it confirms
the results of IPCC (2007) that found a global decrease in rainfall and an increase in temperature with a nuance that some
areas will have more rainfall, while some areas will be in deficit. Our study areas are in this second scenario. However,
because local populations’ indigenous knowledge of the season prediction has been disrupted, this may affect their local
mitigation and adaptation strategies (Nyong et al., 2007).
According to agro-pastoralists, climate change and variability impacts pasture, water resource, livestock health and yield
which have been confirmed by crop farmers. In fact, water resource, crop and pasture productivity are highly correlated with
climatic conditions such as rainfall and temperature. Rainfall decrease entails a reduction of pasture and crop production
(Lema and Majule, 2009; IUCN, 2010). An increase in the temperature stimulates plants evapotranspiration leading to
drought (IPCC, 2007). Also, Nardone et al., (2010) found that climate change may increase the prevalence of parasites and
diseases that affect livestock because in areas with increased rainfall, moisture-reliant pathogens could thrive. Farmers’
perception about climate change impacts on the pastoral resources have been found also by Wongtschowski et al., (2009);
and Zampaligre et al., (2013). They arrived at the conclusion that climate change is impacting pasture availability, the soil
fertility, the desertification, and the pastures specific composition (eg: biodiversity).
To adapt to the impacts of climate change and variability agro-pastoralists diversify their activity, diversify their livestock
species, and practice transhumance. The small ruminants play an important role in their livestock system by allowing them
to meet their immediate social and economic needs (Malonine, 2006). Diversification through crop production gives them
both cereals for their own consumption and crop residues for livestock feeding. For the mobility, they are doing
transhumance that currently defers by a precious departures, the late returns and the distances covered that is more and
longer. These types of diversification and the mutation in transhumance practices as risk-adverse methods are mentioned by
many authors in the context of climate change and variability (Nori et al., 2008).
Crop farmers, in addition to diversification practices, they do also shift cultivation, expand their cropland, and use improved
varieties. Farmers’ adaptation practices such as transhumance, expansion of cropland or shifting cultivation as well as
migration are in general more spontaneous and cannot build deeply their resilience to the impacts of climate change
(OECD/SWAC, 2008) even though transhumance is a strategy adapted to dry lands with scarce resources and high climate
variability (Breusers, 2001; Brook, 2006; Nori, 2007; Nori et al., 2008; Zampaligre et al., 2013). Then, the frequency and
severity of extreme climate events (floods, droughts) and the rainfall variability are threatening farmers’ adaptive capacity
(Kandji et al., 2006). As they have low adaptive capacity to climate change impacts for their resilience building, farmers
become more and more vulnerable.
CONCLUSION
Farmers’ perception of climate change and variability indicators, and climate data analysis show a decrease in rainfall and an
increase of temperatures with a shortening of rainy season in our two districts of study. Climate change and variation have
impacted natural resources availability such as pasture, water, cropland, livestock routes, and worsening livestock health
and crop yield. Climate change is a risk to human security by its potentially negative effects on people’s well-being
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To adapt to the impacts of climate change and variability agro-pastoralists are doing species and activities diversification
and mobility (especially transhumance) practices, while, crop farmers are mostly shifting cultivation, increase of cropland,
diversification and the use of improved seeds which cannot build strongly their resilience to the impacts of climate change.
Climate change adaptation has to be integrated in disaster risk reduction strategies and should be mainstreamed into land
plans strategies at national, local and sectorial levels. In addition, climate foresight and scenarios have to be integrated into
planning for livestock development for a better building of community resilience.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to thank the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) for funding the WASCAL (West African
Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use) Project, coordinated by the Center for Development Research
(ZEF, Bonn University), in which framework this work took place
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