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Transcript
Psychology Oswayo Valley High School COGNITION an exercise for and about the brain Introduction Cognitive Psychology One Definition The study of higher mental processes such as attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, and thinking. Three Concepts Learning Thinking Remembering “I think, therefore I am” Introduction Cognitive Processes Step #1 - Learning The transforming of information so the nervous system can process it; a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency that results from experience It is the “input” stage Introduction Cognitive Processes Step #2 - Thinking The maintaining of information over a period of time; the changing and reorganizing of stored information to create new information It is the “processing” stage Introduction Cognitive Processes Step #3 – Remembering The process of obtaining information that has been stored It is the “output” stage Learning Classical Conditioning Social Learning Learning Operant Conditioning Cognitive Learning Classical Conditioning Definition A learning procedure in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a neutral stimulus Ivan Pavlov John B Watson (1849-1936) (1878-1958) Key Terms/Concepts Neutral Stimulus: a stimulus that does not initially elicit any part of the unconditioned response Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): an event that elicits a certain predictable response typically without previous training Unconditioned Response (UCR): an organism’s automatic (or natural) reaction to a stimulus Key Terms, cont’d Conditioned Stimulus (CS): a once-natural event that elicits a given response after a period of training in which it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned Response (CR): the learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus Pavlov’s Experiment Watson’s Experiment The Case of Little Albert “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.” (1930, John B.Watson) Principles of Classical Conditioning Acquisition of a classically conditioned response generally occurs gradually Time of the CS before the UCS Generalization: process in which a response spreads from one specific stimulus to other similar stimuli Principles of Classical Conditioning, cont’d Extinction: the gradual loss of an association over time when the conditioned response is repeatedly presented without the unconditional stimulus Spontaneous recovery: the sudden reappearance of an extinguished response Applications of Classical Conditioning Flooding: exposure to harmless stimulus until fear response to that stimulus is extinguished Systematic Desensitization: a pleasant, relaxed state is associated with gradually increasing anxiety triggering stimuli Applications of Classical Conditioning, cont’d Counter-conditioning: a pleasant stimulus is paired repeatedly with a fearful one, counteracting the fear coulrophobia Pleasant Response Taste Aversion Operant Conditioning Definition Learning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in learning B F Skinner (1904-1990) Key Terms/Concepts Reinforcement: stimulus or event that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated Positive: something good is added after the action Negative: something bad is taken away after the action Primary reinforcer: satisfies a basic biological need Secondary reinforcer: paired with a primary and through classical conditioning has acquired value and reinforcement Predictable Unpredictable Number Time Fixed Ratio Fixed Interval Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses Reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time has passed Variable Ratio Variable Interval Reinforcement after varying number of responses Reinforcement of first response after varying amounts of time Key Terms/Concepts, cont’d Reward: not the same as reinforcer; something given in recognition Punishment: the process of weakening a response by following it with unpleasant consequences something desired can be taken away something undesired can be added Punishment does not in itself teach acceptable behavior Punishment tends to work only when guaranteed Punishment can create anger and hostility Punishment may be imitated as a way of problem-solving Punishment is sometimes accompanied by unseen benefits that maker the behavior more, not less, likely to be repeated Key Terms/Concepts, cont’d Shaping: the process of gradually refining a response by successively reinforcing closer approximations of it; technique in which the desired behavior is “molded” by first rewarding any act similar to that behavior and then requiring ever-closer approximations to the behavior before giving the reward Chaining: learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next Social Learning Definition Process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others; also known as modeling or observational learning Albert Bandura (1925-) Cognitive Learning Definition An approach to the study of learning that emphasizes abstract mental processes and previous knowledge Key Terms/Concepts Latent Learning: learning that is not obvious but goes on under the surface; it remains hidden until needed (Tolman, 1930) Key Terms/Concepts, cont’d Cognitive Map: a mental image of where one is located in space (Gould) Expectancies: beliefs about our ability to perform on action and to get the desired reward Reinforcement Value: the preference for certain types of reinforcement over other types Strategies: techniques for problem-solving Principles of Cognitive Learning Acoustic Codes: recording the memory as a sequence of sounds Visual Codes: forming a mental picture Semantic Codes: making sense of the letters by figuring out what they might mean OT T F F S S E N T Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Selective Attention: concentrating on one sensation among many outputs while not completely blocking out others; information that… Relates to a basic need Is of personal interest Is unusual or novel Feature Extraction: focusing on the significant characteristics of the information selected for attention Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Elaboration: the process of attaching a maximum number of associations to an item to be learned so that it can be retrieved more easily In 1925, lawyer William Jennings Bryan prosecuted John Scopes for teaching evolution and won the case. In1919, many states were won over to the cause of the Eighteenth Amendment, which prohibited the sale of liquor. Fourteen years later the Twenty-First Amendment repealed the Eighteenth. In 1925, lawyer William Jennings Bryan prosecuted a young high school teacher named John Scopes who wanted to give students information about evolution. The trial took on the atmosphere of a circus. It became a free-for-all, with shouting by “liberated” (for that time) college students and young reporters who reflected antireligious feeling that was then erupting in the country. The teacher was found guilty, so Bryan won the case, but he was mocked so much during the trial that some people believe that this led to his death five days later. Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Mnemonic Devices: unusual associations made to aid memory Method of Location Material to be Learned: grocery list (milk, eggs, celery, etc.) Method of Locations: imagine a familiar location and place the items to be remembered in various areas of that location. It is usually effective to enlarge the items in a bizarre way. How the information is stored: The sink is filled with milk that overflows onto the floor. Giant eggs roll along the tabletop. On the chairs, sitting at attention, are giant celery stalks; they prevent the eggs from falling. Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Acronym Material to be Learned: The planets Acronym: Take the first letter of each item on a list and make a word How the information is stored: My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Nine Planets Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Narrative Chaining Material to be Learned: A part of the brain: the cerebellum, which controls balance Narrative Chaining: Tie together the material to be learned into a story How the information is stored: He hit me in the cerebellum with a brick, and I was thrown off balance…. Principles of Cognitive Learning, cont’d Principle Learning: learning in which an overall view (principle) of the material to be learned is developed so that the material is better organized Drill and Practice: “repetition aids learning” Funnel Approach: learning general concepts before moving on to specific details Classical Conditioning Social Learning Learning Operant Conditioning Cognitive Learning Picture Credits Exercising Brain http://thm-a01.yimg.com/image/eff5a4c1adb9efd4 Brain (with vessels) http://www.alzheimer.ca/english/alzheimer_brain_mini_site/images/02a.jpg Descartes http://math.usask.ca/conicsdemo/DEMO/extensions/images/descartes.jpeg Pavlov http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/05pavlov.jpg Watson http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch01_psychology_and_science/01watson.jpg Pavlov – before, during after http://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NCMaterial/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/PAVLOV.gif Pavlov - diagram http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch05_conditioning/05pavlovsdog.jpg Pavlov cartoon http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/psychology/pavlov_conditioning_dogs.gif Little Albert http://cdn-www.cracked.com/articleimages/dan/scientific/albert Marlboro Man http://i44.photobucket.com/albums/f5/atanudotcom/marlboro.jpg Michelin Tire Ad http://aroundthesphere.files.wordpress.com/2009/09/michelin-baby-in-tire-ad.jpg?w=450&h=299 Picture Credits Rat with Flag http://www.activityvillage.co.uk/rat_with_flag.gif Honeybee http://honeybeesdisappearing.com/images/honeybees_disappearing_2.jpg Shylock http://www.toptenz.net/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/shylock-classic1.jpg