Download SG-Ch 7 Learning

Learning 1
How Do We Learn?
7. In Pavlov's classic experiment, a tone, or
Objective 7-1:Define learning, and identify some basic
_______________________ _______________________
forms of learning.
is sounded just before food, the
1. The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring
_______________________ _______________________
information or behaviors is called
is placed in the animal's mouth.
_______________________ .
2. More than 200years ago, philosophers such as
John Locke and David Hume argued that an important
factor in learning is our tendency to
_______________________ events that occur in sequence.
8. An animal will salivate when food is placed in its mouth.
Even simple animals, such as the sea slug Aplysia, can learn
This salivation is called the _______________________
simple _______________________ between stimuli. This
_______________________ .
type of learning is called _______________________
9. Eventually, the dogs in Pavlov's experiment would
_______________________ .
salivate on hearing the tone, now called the
3. The type of learning in which the organism learns to
_______________________ _______________________
associate two stimuli is _______________________
.This salivation is called the _______________________
conditioning. A situation or event that evokes a response is
_______________________ .
a _______________________ .
4. The tendency of organisms to associate a response and its
consequence forms the basis of _______________________
conditioning.
5. We acquire mental information that guides our behavior
through ____________________ ____________________ .
Complex animals often learn behaviors merely by
_______________________ others perform them. This is
STUDY TIP: Students often confuse stimulus with response
and conditioned with unconditioned. The stimulus is the event
that causes something else, the response, to happen.
Unconditioned means "unlearned"; conditioned means
called _______________________
"learned." Thus, an unconditioned response (UR) is an event
_______________________ .
that occurs naturally in response to some stimulus. An
unconditioned stimulus (US) is something that naturally and
Classical Conditioning
automatically triggers the unlearned response.
Objective 7-2:Define classical conditioning and
A conditioned stimulus (CS) is an originally neutral stimulus
behaviorism, and describe the basic components of classical
(NS) that, through learning, comes to be associated with some
conditioning.
unlearned response. A conditioned response (CR) is the
6. Classical conditioning was first explored by the Russian
learned response to the originally neutral but now conditioned
physiologist _______________________ . Early in the
twentieth century, psychologist _______________________
urged psychologists to discard references to mental
concepts in favor of studying observable behavior. This
view, called _______________________ , influenced
American psychology during the first half of that century.
stimulus.
Stimulus (event or other trigger) -> Response
Unconditioned = unlearned
Conditioned = learned
So, unconditioned stimulus + conditioned stimulus
unconditioned response
conditioned response
2 Learning
APPLICATIONS:
16. When the US is presented prior to a neutral stimulus,
Classical conditioning is all around us. It is especially common
conditioning (does/does not) occur.
in the realm of emotional behavior. Test your understanding of
17. Sexual conditioning studies with quail demonstrate that
the basic elements of classical conditioning in the following
classical conditioning is highly adaptive because it helps
example. Then, consider whether there are emotions of your
animals _______________________ and
own that might have developed as the product of classical
_______________________ .
conditioning.
18. The procedure in which an established conditioned
As a child, you were playing in the yard one day when a
neighbor's cat wandered over. Your mother (who has a
terrible fear of animals) screamed and snatched you into her
hat
arms. Her behavior caused you to cry. You now have a fear of
As a child, you were playing in the yard one day
cats. a neighbor's cat wandered over. Your mother
when
stimulus is paired with a different
_______________________ stimulus, thereby establishing
the latter as a _______________________ stimulus, is called
_______________________-_______________________
_______________________ ,
(who
has
a then
terrible
of animals) screamed and
10. The
NS,
CS isfear
______________________________
snatched you into her arms. Her behavior caused you 19. If a CS is repeatedly presented without the US,
TheYou
US isnow
______________________________________
to11.
cry.
have a fear of cats.
12. The
The CR
is then
______________________________________
10.
NS,
CS is
----------13. The UR is ______________________________________
11. The US is
14. You always--------------rattle the box of dog biscuits before giving
12. The CR is
your dog a--------------treat. As you do so, your dog salivates. At first,
13. The UR is
rattling the--------------box is a _ which eventually becomes a __ .
its
Youralways
dog's salivation
is abox
. _ of dog biscuits before
14. You
rattle the
givinga. your
dog
a
treat.
As you do so, your dog
NS; CS; CR
salivates. At first, rattling the box is a
_
b. CS; NS; UR
which eventually becomes a __
. Your
NS; US; CRis a .
dog'sc.salivation
_
d. US;
a. NS;
CS;NS;
CRUR
b. CS; NS; UR
d
(b) _______________________ soon occurs; that is, the
CR diminishes.
20. Following a pause, however, the CR reappears in
response to the CS; this phenomenon is called
(c) _______________________
_______________________ .
21. Subjects often respond to a similar stimulus as they
would to the original CS. This phenomenon is called
_______________________ .
22. Humans and other animals can also be trained not to
c. NS; US; CR
d. US; NS; UR
respond to _______________________ stimuli. This
Objective 7-3: Summarize the processes of acquisition,
_
learned ability is called _______________________
Objective 7-3:Summarize the processes of acquisiextinction,
spontaneous
recovery,recovery,
generalization,
and
tion,
extinction,
spontaneous
generalization,
23. Being able to recognize differences among stimuli has
and
discrimination.
discrimination.
_______________________ value because it lets us limit
Use the following graph as a reference for the
our learned responses to appropriate stimuli.
Use
the following
graph as
a reference for the
answers
to 15(a), 19(b),and
20(c).
answers to 15(a), 19(b), and 20(c).
Strong T I a. CS + us
b. CS alone
generalization confusing because of their negative social
c.
connotations. In the context of classical conditioning,
Strength
ofCR
discrimination is a healthy sign that the subject of conditioning
e
n
urs
.
e
Weak I ,
~
n_ .. __
::::::000..""
Time
15. The initial learning of a conditioned response is called
15. The initial learning of a conditioned response is
(a) _______________________ . For many conditioning
called (a)
. For many conditioning situations, the optimal interval between a
situations, the optimal interval between a neutral stimulus
and the US is _______________________
neutral stimulus and the US is
_______________________ .
16.
STUDY TIP: Some students find the terms discrimination and
When the US is presented prior to a neutral stim-
has learned the difference between two stimuli, much as a
"discriminating coffee lover" can taste subtle variations
between two coffee blends. Generalization is apparent when
discrimination does not occur.
Learning 3
APPLICATION:
Bill had an American-made car that was in the shop more
Objective 7-5: Describe how operant behavior is
than it was out. Since then he will not even consider owning
reinforced and shaped.
an American-made car.
29. B. F. Skinner used Thorndike's
24. Bill's attitude is an example of
_______________________ _______________________
_______________________ . Bill's friend Andy also had
an American-made car with similar problems. Deciding
that it was just that brand, Andy decided to try another
brand. Rather than bunch all American-made cars
together, he was a _______________________ buyer of
cars.
Objective 7-4:Explain why Pavlov's work remains so
important, and describe some applications of his work to
human health and well-being.
25. Classical conditioning is one way that virtually all
organisms learn to _______________________ to their
environment.
26. Another aspect of Pavlov's legacy is that he showed
how a process such as learning could be studied
_______________________ .
Explain why the study of classical conditioning is
important.
_______________________ as a starting point in
developing a behavioral technology. This principle states
that _______________________ behavior is likely to
_______________________ .
30. In operant conditioning, organisms associate their own
actions with _______________________ . Actions followed
by _______________________ increase; actions followed
by _______________________ decrease.
31. Skinner designed an apparatus, called the
_______________________ _______________________ to
investigate learning in
animals. This design
creates a stage on
which organisms act
out Skinner's concept
of ________________
any event that
increases the
frequency of a preceding response.
32. The procedure in which a person teaches an animal to
perform an intricate behavior by building up to it in small
steps is called _______________________ . This method
involves reinforcing successive of the desired behavior.
33. In experiments to determine what an animal can
27. Through classical conditioning, former drug users often
feel a _______________________ when they are in the
_______________________ associated with previous highs.
28. Research studies demonstrate that the body's immune
system (can/cannot) be classically conditioned.
Describe the Watson and Rayner experiment.
perceive, researchers have found that animals are capable of
forming and _______________________ between stimuli.
Similar experiments have been conducted with babies, who
also can't verbalize their responses.
34. A situation, event, or signal that a certain response will
be reinforced is a _______________________
_______________________ .
4 Learning
APPLICATION:
Remember that from the organism's point of view,
35. Which of the following is an example of shaping?
reinforcement is always a desirable outcome. You may find it
a. A dog learns to salivate at the sight of a box of dog
useful to think of a photography analogy. A "negative" is a
biscuits.
reverse image in which the "positive" photographic image is
b. A new driver learns to stop at an intersection when the
not present. So too, negative reinforcement involves taking
light changes to red.
away an event-in this case, one that is undesirable.
c. A parrot is rewarded first for making any sound, then
for making a sound similar to "Laura," and then for
Objective 7-7: Explain how the different reinforcement
"speaking" its owner's name.
schedules affect behavior.
42. A _______________________
Objective 7-6: Discuss the differences between positive and
_______________________ is a pattern specifying how
negative reinforcement, and identify the basic types of
often a _______________________
reinforcers.
_______________________ is reinforced.
36. A stimulus that strengthens a response by presenting a
43. The procedure involving reinforcement of each and
typically pleasurable stimulus after a response is a
every response is called _______________________
_______________________ _______________________ .
_______________________ . Under these conditions,
37. A stimulus that strengthens a response by reducing or
learning is (rapid/slow). When this type of reinforcement is
removing an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is a
discontinued, extinction is (rapid/ slow).
_______________________ _______________________ .
44. The procedure in which responses are reinforced only
38. Reinforcers, such as food and shock, that are related to
part of the time is called _______________________
basic needs and therefore do not rely on learning are called
reinforcement. Under these conditions, learning is generally
_______________________ _______________________ .
(faster /slower) than it is with continuous reinforcement.
39. Reinforcers that must be conditioned and therefore
Behavior reinforced in this manner is (very /not very)
derive their power through association are called
resistant to extinction.
_______________________ _______________________ .
45. When behavior is reinforced after a set number of
40. Children who are able to delay gratification tend to
responses, a _______________________ -
become (more/less) socially competent and high achieving
_______________________ schedule is in effect.
as they mature.
46. Three-year-old Yusef knows that if he cries when he
41. Immediate reinforcement (is/is not) more effective than
wants a treat, his mother will sometimes give in. When, as
its alternative, _______________________ reinforcement.
in this case, reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable
This explains in part the difficulty that
number of responses, a _______________________ -
_______________________ users have in quitting their
_______________________ schedule is being used.
habits, as well as the tendency of some teens to engage in
47. Reinforcement of the first response after a set interval of
risky, _______________________
time defines the _______________________ -
_______________________ .
_______________________ schedule. An example of this
schedule is _______________________________________ .
STUDY TIP: Some students have a problem differentiating
48. When the first response after varying amounts of time is
positive and negative reinforcers because they naturally think
reinforced, a _______________________ -
"positive" indicates a "good," or desirable, outcome, while
_______________________ schedule is in effect.
"negative" connotes a "bad," or undesirable, outcome.
Learning 5
Describe the typical patterns of response under fixed-
Objective 7-8: Discuss how punishment and negative
interval, fixed-ratio, variable-interval, and variable-ratio
reinforcement differ, and explain how punishment affects
schedules of reinforcement.
behavior.
54. Negative reinforcement (increases / decreases) a
response by _______________________ an aversive
stimulus after that response. Punishment
(increases/decreases) a response by
APPLICATlONS:
_______________________ an aversive stimulus after that
49. You are expecting an important letter in the mail. As the
response.
regular delivery time approaches you glance more and
55. An aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood
more frequently out the window, searching for the letter
of the behavior that preceded it is called
carrier. Your behavior in this situation typifies that
_______________________ . If an aversive stimulus is
associated with which schedule of reinforcement?
administered, it is called _______________________
a. fixed-ratio
c. fixed-interval
b. variable-ratio
d. variable-interval
50. From a casino owner's viewpoint, which of the following
jackpot-payout schedules would be the most desirable for
reinforcing customer use of a slot machine?
a. variable-ratio
_______________________ . If a desirable stimulus is
withdrawn, it is called _______________________
_______________________ .
56. Because punished behavior is merely
_______________________ , it may reappear. Also,
b. fixed-ratio
punishment teaches _______________________ , that
c. variable-interval
behavior that is unacceptable in one context may be
d. fixed-interval
acceptable in another. Punishment can also lead to
51. Lars, a shoe salesman, is paid every two weeks; whereas,
_______________________ and a sense of helplessness, as
Tom receives a commission for each pair of shoes he
well as to the association of the aversive event with
sells. Evidently, Lars is paid on a
_______________________ _______________________.
_______________________ schedule of reinforcement,
57. Punishment also often increases
and Tom on a _______________________ schedule of
_______________________ and does not guide the
reinforcement.
individual toward more desirable behavior.
a. fixed-ratio; fixed-interval
b. continuous; intermittent
STUDY TIP/APPLICATION: To avoid the natural tendency to
c. fixed-interval; fixed-ratio
confuse punishment and negative reinforcement, remember
d. variable-interval; variable-ratio
that positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement both
52. Jack finally takes out the garbage in order to get his father
lead to an increase in behavior, while punishment decreases
to stop pestering him. Jack's behavior is being influenced
behavior. In punishment, something bad occurs following an
by _______________________
undesirable behavior; in negative reinforcement, something
_______________________ .
bad is removed. Complete the chart below of examples of
53. Your instructor invites you to her home as part of a select
group of students to discuss possible careers in
psychology. The invitation is an example of a
_______________________
_______________________ .
punishment and negative reinforcement. The first example
has been filled in for you.
6
be acceptable in another. Punishment can also
lead to
and a sense of helplessness, as well as to the association of the aversive event with
_
Learning
58.
Behavior
Driving
while intoxicated
In punishment, something bad occurs following an
undesirable behavior; in negative reinforcement,
something bad is removed. Complete the chart
below of examples of punishment and negative reinforcement. The first example has been filled in for
you.
Consequence
Which Is Taken Away,
Something Good or Bad?
Is This Punishment or
Negative Reinforcement?
Lose driver's
license
Good
Punishment
a. Forgetting to give your
roommate a phone
message
b. Putting on your coat
so that you are
no longer cold
c. Getting a drink
when you are thirsty
d. Using your laptop
until the battery dies
e. Your brother nagging
you until you help
him with his homework
Objective7-9:Describe
7-9:Describe
controversy
Objective
thethe
controversy
overover
Skinner's
Skinner's views of human behavior, and identify
views of human behavior, and identify some ways to apply
some ways to apply operant conditioning principles
operant
conditioning
at school,
in sports, at work,
at school,
in sports, principles
at work, and
at home.
and at home.
59. Skinner's views were controversial because he
59. Skinner's
he insisted
insisted views
that were controversial because
influences,
that _______________________
influences,
rather than
rather than
_
________
and
_
_______________________ _______________________
shape behavior.
and _______________________
shape behavior.
60.Skinner
Skinneralso
also
advocated
60.
advocated
thethe
use use
of of
_________
principles to influence peo_______________________ principles to influence people
ple in ways that promote more desirable
in ways that promote more desirable
_______________________ .
61. Skinner's critics argued that he
61. Skinner's
critics argued that
he by neglecting their
________
people
_______________________ people by neglecting their
personal _______________________ and by seeking to
63. Inpersonal
boosting productivity in the workplace,
positive to
and by seeking
_________
their actions.
reinforcement
is (more/less) effective
when applied to
62. The
use of teaching
machines
programmed
specific
behaviors
than when
given to and
reward
general merit
textbooks
was
an
early
application
of
the operant
and when the desired performance is well defined
and
conditioning procedure of
_
_______________________ . For such behaviors,
to education. Online
sysimmediate
reinforcement
is
(more/no
more)
effective
tems, software that is
_than
delayed
andreinforcement.
-based learning
newer
examples
of this to
application
of own
operant
64. Inare
using
operant
conditioning
change your
principles.
Reinforcement
behavior,
you would
follow these principles
four steps can also be
used to enhance
abilities by
a. ______________________________________________
shaping successive approximations of new skills.
b. ______________________________________________
63. In boosting productivity in the workplace, posic. ______________________________________________
tive reinforcement is
_
d. ______________________________________________
(more/less) effective when applied to specific
APPLICATIONS:
65. The manager of a manufacturing plant wishes to use
_______________________ their actions.
positive reinforcement to increase the productivity of
62. The use of teaching machines and programmed
workers. Which of the following procedures would
textbooks was an early application of the operant
probably be the most effective?
conditioning procedure of _______________________ to
education. Online systems, software that is
_______________________ and
_______________________-based learning are newer
examples of this application of operant principles.
Reinforcement principles can also be used to enhance
_______________________ abilities by shaping successive
approximations of new skills.
a. Deserving employees are given a general merit
bonus at the end of each fiscal year.
b. A productivity goal that seems attainable, yet is
unrealistic, is set for each employee.
c. Employees are given immediate bonuses for
specific behaviors related to productivity.
d. Employees who fail to meet standards of
productivity receive pay cuts.
ductivity of workers. Which of the following procedures would probably be the most effective?
a. Deserving employees are given a general
merit bonus at the end of each fiscal year.
b. A productivity goal that seems attainable, yet
is unrealistic, is set for each employee.
c. Employees are given immediate bonuses for
66. Reggie's
mother
tells him that
he can
TV after he
specific
behaviors
related
to watch
productivity.
d.
Employees
who
fail
to
meet
standards
of procleans his room. Evidently, Reggie's mother is attempting
ductivity receive pay cuts.
to use to increase room cleaning.
66. Reggie's
mother
tells him that he can watch
a. operant
conditioning
TV after he cleans his room. Evidently, Reggie's
b. secondary
reinforcement
mother
is attempting
to use
to
increase
room
cleaning.
c. positive
reinforcement
a.
b.
c.
d.
operant
conditioning
d.
all of these
procedures
Objective 7-10:Identify the characteristics that distinguish
operant conditioning from classical conditioning.
Behavior
70. The reflexive responses of classical conditioning
involve
behavior.
Learning 7
In contrast, behavior that is more spontaneous
and that is influenced by its consequences is
called .of _______________________
behavior.
the influences
processes and
71.
72. Classical and operant
conditioning are both sub_______________________
predispositions.
ject to the influences of
_
processes and
_
STUDY TIP/APPLICATION: If you still find yourself confusing
predispositions.
classical conditioning and operant conditioning, try the
following.
yourself two questions:
(1) Is
thefind
behavior
STUDYAsk
TIP/APPLICATION:
If you
still
yourself
confusing classical conditioning and operant conditioning, try the following. Ask yourself two questions:
conditioning)?
(2) Does voluntary
the learning(operant
involve anconditioning)
association
(1) Is the behavior
or involuntary (classical conditioning)? (2) Does the
between two stimuli (classical conditioning) or between a
learning involve an association between two stimuli
(classical
or between
a response
response
and conditioning)
an outcome (operant
conditioning)?
Test your
and an outcome (operant conditioning)? Test your
understanding with the following examples.
understanding with the following examples.
voluntary (operant conditioning) or involuntary (classical
secondary reinforcement
positive reinforcement
all of these procedures
73.
responses.
Is the Behavior
Voluntary or Involuntary?
Type of
Conditioning
a. After receiving a mild shock
from the "invisible fence"
surrounding his yard, a dog no
longer crosses the boundary.
b. You flinch when someone
yells, "Duck!"
c. You ask more questions in
class after the professor praises
you for a good question.
d. The pupil of your eye dilates
(opens wider) after you enter
a darkened theater.
67. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are
both forms of _______________________
Biology, Cognition, and Learning
_______________________ .
Objective 7-11: Explain how biological constraints affect
68. Both types of conditioning involve similar processes of
classical and operant conditioning.
_______________________ , _______________________ ,
74. Some psychologists once believed that any natural
_______________________ , _______________________ ,
_______________________ could be conditioned to any
_______________________ and
neutral _______________________ .
_______________________ .
75. Garcia discovered that rats would associate
69. Classical conditioning associates
_______________________ with taste but not with other
_______________________ stimuli with stimuli that trigger
stimuli. Garcia found that taste-aversion conditioning
responses that are _ Thus, in this form of conditioning, the
(would/would not) occur when the delay between the CS
organism (does/does not) control the responses.
and the US was more than an hour is speedier, stronger,
70. The reflexive responses of classical conditioning involve
and more durable when the CS is
_______________________ behavior.
_______________________ relevant.
71. In contrast, behavior that is more spontaneous and that
76. Results such as these demonstrate that the principles of
is influenced by its consequences is called
learning are constrained by the _______________________
_______________________ behavior.
predispositions of each animal species and that they help
72. Classical and operant conditioning are both subject to
each species _______________________ to its environment.
8 Learning
They also demonstrate the importance of different
82. The early behaviorists believed that to understand
_______________________ in understanding complex
behavior in various organisms, any presumption of was
phenomena.
_______________________ unnecessary.
77. Operant conditioning (is/is not) constrained by an
83. Experiments by Rescorla and Wagner demonstrate that
animal's biological predispositions.
a CS must reliably _______________________ the US for
78. For instance, with animals it is difficult to use food as a
an association to develop and, more generally, that
_______________________ to _______________________
_______________________ processes playa role in
behaviors that are not naturally associated with
conditioning. It is as if the animal learns to
_______________________ .
_______________________ that the US will occur.
79. Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn
84. The importance of cognitive processes in human
associations that are naturally _______________________ .
conditioning is demonstrated by the failure of classical
When animals revert to their biologically predisposed
conditioning as a treatment for _______________________
patterns, they are exhibiting what is called
_______________________ .
_______________________ _______________________ .
85. Skinner and other behaviorists resisted the growing
belief that expectations, perceptions, and other
APPLICATIONS:
_______________________ processes have a valid place in
80. A pigeon can easily be taught to flap its wings to avoid
the science of psychology.
shock but not for food reinforcement. According to the
86. When a well-learned
text, this is most likely so because
route in a maze is blocked,
a. pigeons are biologically predisposed to flap their
rats sometimes choose an
wings to escape aversive events and to use their
alternative route, acting as
beaks to obtain food.
if they were consulting a
b. shock is a more motivating stimulus for birds than
food is.
_______________________ _______________________ .
c. hungry animals have difficulty delaying their eating
87. Animals may learn from experience even when
long enough to learn any new skill.
reinforcement is not available. When learning is not
d. of all of these reasons.
apparent until reinforcement has been provided,
81. Last evening May-Ling ate her first cheeseburger and
french fries at an American fast-food restaurant. A few
hours later she became ill. It can be expected that MayLing will
a. develop an aversion to the sight of a cheeseburger
and french fries.
_______________________ _______________________ is
said to have occurred.
88. Excessive rewards may undermine
_______________________ _______________________,
which is the desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.
b. develop an aversion to the taste of a cheeseburger
The motivation to seek external rewards and avoid
and french fries.
punishment is called _______________________
c. not associate her illness with the food she ate.
_______________________ .
d. associate her sickness with something she
experienced immediately before she became ill.
APPLICATIONS:
89. After discovering that her usual route home was closed
Objective 7-12: Explain how cognitive processes affect
due to road repairs, Sharetta used her knowledge of the
classical and operant conditioning.
city and sense of direction to find an alternative route.
Learning 9
This is an example of
95. Bandura believes people imitate a model because of
a. latent learning.
_______________________ and
b. observational learning.
_______________________ those received by the model as
c. shaping.
well as by imitators.
d. using a cognitive map.
96. Models are most effective when they are perceived as
90. Two rats are independently placed in a maze. One rat is
rewarded with food in the goal box. The other receives no
food reward. On a later trial, food is placed in the goal box
for the "unrewarded" rat. What can you say about the rat's
behavior on that trial?
a. The "unrewarded" rat will run to the goal box just
as quickly as the rewarded rat.
_______________________ , _______________________ ,
or _______________________ . Models are also most
effective when their words and actions are
_______________________ .
97. Neuroscientists have found _______________________
neurons in the brain's _______________________ lobe that
b. The rat will wander around the maze and never
may provide a neural basis for _______________________
find the food reward.
learning. These neurons have been observed to fire when
c. The rat will find the food reward, but it will take
monkeys perform a simple task and when they
much longer than the rewarded rat.
_______________________ . Whether the human ability to
d. The rat will not even try to find the food reward.
_______________________ and
91. Nancy decided to take introductory psychology because
_______________________ is due to these neurons or to
she has always been interested in human behavior. Jack
distributed brain _______________________ is an issue
enrolled in the same course because he thought it would
currently being debated.
be easy. Nancy's behavior was motivated by
98. By age _______________________ , infants will imitate
_______________________, Jack's by
various novel gestures. By age _______________________
_______________________ .
they will imitate acts modeled on television. Children's
a. extrinsic motivation; intrinsic motivation
brains enable their _______________________ and their
b. intrinsic motivation; extrinsic motivation
_______________________ _______________________
c. drives; incentives
_______________________ .
d. incentives; drives
Learning by Observation
APPLICATIONS: Children-and, of course, adults learn a great
deal by watching other people. Depending on the models, the
Objective 7-13:Describe the process of observational
behavior they learn may be good or bad.
learning, and explain how some scientists believe it is
99. During holiday breaks Lionel watches wrestling, which
enabled by mirror neurons.
_______________________ his aggressive tendencies.
92. Learning by observing and imitating others is
His brother Michael won't watch the wrestling because he
called ,or _______________________
feels the pain of the choke hold, for example, as reflected
_______________________ . This form of learning
in his brain's _______________________
(occurs/does not occur) in species other than our own.
_______________________ . Instead, Michael spends
93. The psychologist best known for research on
time with Grandma, who cooks for the poor during the
observational learning is _______________________ .
holiday season, helping Michael to learn
94. In one experiment, the child who viewed an adult
_______________________ behavior.
punch an inflatable doll played (more/less) aggressively
than the child who had not observed the adult.
100. Mrs. Ramirez often tells her children that it is important to
buckle their seat belts while riding in the car, but she
10 Learning
rarely does so herself. Her children will probably learn to
watching violence on television (does/does not) lead to
a. use their seat belts and tell others it is important to
aggressive behavior.
do so.
109. (Thinking Critically) The violence-viewing effect
b. use their seat belts but not tell others it is
stems from several factors, including
important to do so.
_______________________ of observed aggression and the
c. tell others it is important to use seat belts but
tendency of prolonged exposure to violence to
rarely use them themselves.
d. neither tell others that seat belts are important nor
use them.
101. After watching coverage of the Olympics on television
recently, Lynn and Susan have been staging their own
"summer games." Which of the following best accounts
for their behavior?
a. classical conditioning
b. observational learning
c. latent learning
d. shaping
Objective 7-14: Discuss the impact of prosocial modeling
and of antisocial modeling.
102. Children will model positive, or
_______________________ , behaviors.
103. Children will also model negative, or
_______________________ , behaviors. This may help
explain why _______________________ parents might
have children. However, _______________________
factors may also be involved.
104. Children in developed countries spend more time
_______________________ _______________________
than they spend in school.
105. Compared with the real world, television depicts a
much higher percentage of crimes as being
_______________________ in nature.
106. (Thinking Critically) Correlational studies (link/ do
not link) watching television violence with violent behavior.
107. (Thinking Critically) The more hours children spend
watching violent programs, the more at risk they are for
_______________________ and
_______________________ as teens and adults.
108. (Thinking Critically) Correlation does not prove
_______________________ . Most researchers believe that
_______________________ viewers.