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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 Ch. 6 Learning King 3rd Edition Updated 3-15 Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. Dogs and Conditioning: Some Humor 2 6-2 Dogs and Conditioning: Some Humor 3 6-3 1 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 4 6-4 CHAPTER PREVIEW Observational Classical Conditioning Learning Operant Conditioning Health and Wellness Factors That Affect Learning 6-5 LEARNING THEORY Learning a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience • Behaviorism • Associative Learning / Conditioning • Observational Learning 6-6 2 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 TYPES OF LEARNING Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning • Helps to explain voluntary behavior. • Performing well in swim competition (behavior) becomes associated with getting awards (consequence). 6-7 TYPES OF LEARNING Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning • Helps to explain involuntary behavior. • Control of a response [fear] is shifted to a new stimulus [office]. 6-8 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Ivan Pavlov 1849-1936 Russian physician/ neurophysiologist Nobel Prize in 1904 studied digestive secretions 9 6-9 3 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND IVAN PAVLOV • Russian physiologist who initially was studying digestion • Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were presented with meat powder • Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning • Reflex: Automatic, nonlearned innate response e.g., an eye blink 10 6-10 VIDEO CLIP: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING HTTP://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=HHQUMFPXUZI 6-11 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Classical Conditioning organism comes to associate two stimuli a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus Whaaaat? What does that mean??? 12 6-12 4 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: TERMINOLOGY • Helps to explain involuntary behavior • Usually happens by accident. • Anytime you see these terms – Think Classical Conditioning!! – – – – – Neutral Stimulus (NS) Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR) 13 6-13 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: TERMINOLOGY Some tips: • Unconditioned = Unlearned – Means you don’t have to learn it for it already happens naturally • Conditioned = Learned – Means this is what you get after the conditioning. It is something that has to be learned. 14 6-14 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: HOW IT HAPPENS Classical Conditioning happens when: – Something neutral (neutral stimulus) that doesn’t naturally go with a reflex (UCS-UCR) – Gets presented or occurs with the reflex enough times to where it can replace the original stimulus. – So the neutral stimulus replaces the unconditioned stimulus – Now we call it the “conditioned stimulus” – And the unconditioned response becomes the “conditioned response” 15 6-15 5 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV Example - Pavlov – Pavlov didn’t set out to have dogs drool at the sound of footsteps (neutral stimulus). – The dogs heard the footsteps enough times right before they were given the food/drooled (UCS – UCR) – Now, when those poor pups hear the sound of footsteps, they drool (CS – CR) – Who needs the food now? – The neutral stimulus has replace the unconditioned stimulus. 16 6-16 UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS AND RESPONSE Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally-triggers a response something that naturally makes you behave or react in someway – Unconditioned = Unlearned – you naturally behave this way. You don’t need to learn it. Unconditioned Response (UCR) unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus salivation when food is in the mouth 17 6-17 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Conditioned Stimulus (CS) originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response The neutral stimulus always becomes the CS Conditioned Response (CR) learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus The UCR always becomes the CR 18 6-18 6 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Food UCS (Stimulus) NS UCR Sound Drool (Stimulus 2) Learned Association CS (Response) CR Conditioned Acquisition/Learning Stimulus Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned Innate Stimulus S-RUnconditioned Association ConditionedResponse Response 6-19 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Food UCS (Stimulus) UCR NS Sound Drool (Stimulus 2) CS Learned Association (Response) CR Contingency: Contiguity:CS Time regularly between followed CS & UCS by UCS 6-20 Figure 6.2 FIGURE 6.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is 21 more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments. 6-21 7 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Pavlov’s device for recording salivation 22 6-22 AVLOV ’S CLASSIC EXPERIMENT Doesn’t do a thing for me Before Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) UCR (salivation) During Conditioning Neutral stimulus (tone) No salivation After Conditioning UCS (food in mouth) Neutral stimulus (tone) UCR (salivation) CS (tone) CR (salivation) Yum!! 23 6-23 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-24 8 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Acquisition the initial stage in classical conditioning the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response 25 6-25 ACQUISITION The CS needs to come half a second before the US for acquisition to occur. 26 6-26 27 6-27 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS (passionate kiss) CS (onion breath) CS (onion breath) UCR (sexual arousal) UCS (passionate Kiss) CR (sexual arousal) UCR (sexual arousal) 9 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Food UCS (Stimulus) UCR NS Sound Drool (Stimulus 2) Learned Association CS (Response) CR Generalization - CRs may also appear after various new NS that are similar to the CS 6-28 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Food UCS (Stimulus) UCR NS Sound Drool (Stimulus 2) Learned Association CS (Response) CR Discrimination - CRs appear after the CS but not after other CSs. • Discrimination generally learned by presenting other CSs without the UCS 6-29 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING • Extinction – CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS – Pavlov rang bell but did not present food; the dog stopped salivating. • Spontaneous Recovery – CR recurs after a time delay and without additional learning. – When Pavlov rang the bell the next day, the dog salivated. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-30 10 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 BEHAVIORISM John B. Watson viewed psychology as objective science study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes He believed he could condition a child to be anything he wanted! Watson was thought of as a genius (and a womanizing grandiose jerk) 31 6-31 WATSON • • • • Watson believed child rearing is a science Babies only experience “Fear, rage, and love” Did an experiment with an orphan, little Albert. He never got the chance to counter-condition the baby since Albert was adopted out after the experiment John Watson conducted the Little Albert experiment at the Johns Hopkins U.’s Phipps Psychology Clinic. 32 6-32 WATSON’S EXPERIMENT WITH LITTLE ALBERT • Watson on Albert – "Albert's life was normal: he was healthy from birth and one of the best developed youngsters ever brought to the hospital, weighing twenty-one pounds at nine months of age. He was on the whole solid and unemotional. His stability was one of the principal reasons for using him as a subject in this test. We felt that we could do him relatively little harm by carrying out such experiments as those outlined below." • From "Conditioned Emotional Reactions," by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner, The Journal of Experimental Psychology, February 1920 33 6-33 11 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 WATSON’S EXPERIMENT WITH LITTLE ALBERT Footage from 1920 silent film of John Watson and Rosalie Rayner presenting “little Albert” with different animals before and after conditioning. (Closed captioning for narration coming soon) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE 34 6-34 Figure 6.7 FIGURE 6.7 Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and is frightened by it (b). Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry animals (d). 35 6-35 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Bang UCR NS Rabbit Fear Learned Association CS CR Phobias Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert. 6-36 12 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO LITTLE ALBERT? • Was he still afraid of furry animals after he was adopted out? – Would he freak out if his new parents got him a puppy? • Many researchers have searched for him – Some think researchers believe they discovered his real name (Douglas) and fate – http://www.apa.org/monitor/2010/01/little-albert.aspx – “Sadly, the team also discovered that Douglas died at age 6 of acquired hydrocephalus, and was unable to determine if Douglas' fear of furry objects persisted after he left Hopkins.” • However, other researchers think they found the real little Albert. 37 6-37 WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO LITTLE ALBERT? Two candidates for the real identity of little Albert • Douglas Merritte died in 1925, at age 6, from the hydrocephaly. According to stories passed down by his family, Merritte never learned to walk and either crawled or had to be carried. It’s unclear whether he ever spoke. • The other baby, Albert Barger, lived a long life, but not quite long enough for researchers to discover him. He died in 2007, at age 87. – He was never aware of the study or that he was born out of wedlock – By the way, he never did like dogs. 38 6-38 WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO JOHN WATSON? • • • • Soon after the publication of the Little Albert paper that Watson’s career in psychology came to a premature end. He was in his professional prime, received a raise in salary, and students had voted him "handsomest professor" on campus. Watson had been carrying on an affair with Rosalie Rayner, a graduate student and co-author of the Little Albert paper. She is the unsmiling woman in the film. Watson’s wife found out, and the divorce proceedings were front-page news – http://psychology.about.com/gi/ o.htm?zi=1/XJ&zTi=1&sdn=psych ology&cdn=education&tm=199& f=10&tt=65&bt=5&bts=36&zu=h ttp%3A//chronicle.com/article/T he-Search-forPsychologys/146747/ 39 6-39 13 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO JOHN WATSON? • Watson: – reinvented himself as an advertising executive – married Rayner, – became known as an authority on raising children with his 40 1928 bestseller Psychological Care of the Infant and Child. 6-40 HOW DOES CLASSICAL CONDITIONING APPLY TO THE REAL WORLD? • Explains how people develop phobias – Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert – White rat (CS) paired with loud noise (UCS) • How to treat phobias - Counterconditioning – – – – Associate CS with new, incompatible CR CS paired with new UCS Jones (1924): Peter and the Rabbit Rabbit paired with food eliminated Peter’s fear 41 6-41 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: APPLICATIONS • Fearful Emotional Reactions • Pleasant Emotional Reactions • Advertising • Drug Habituation 42 6-42 14 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: ADVERTISING 43 6-43 EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN HUMANS • Phobia: Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of a specific situation or object (e.g., arachnophobia; fear of spiders; see the movie!) • Conditioned Emotional Response: Learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus • Desensitization: Treatment for phobias. Exposing phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they stay calm and relaxed • Vicarious Classical Conditioning: Learning to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another’s emotional reactions 44 6-44 45 6-45 NAME THIS PSYCHOLOGIST! 15 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Bullying UCR NS School Fear Learned Association CS CR Friend Fun Counterconditioning - Goal: Associate CS with new, incompatible CR - Means: CS paired with new UCS 6-46 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Ad Actors NS UCR Product Fun Learned Association CS CR Application Advertising 6-47 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Medicine in Pill UCS NS Pill Learned Association CS UCR Pain Relief, immune response CR Application Placebo Effect - immune and endocrine responses 6-48 16 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Drug Effect NS UCR Drug Paraphernalia Learned Association CS Body Counteracts Drug CR Application Drug Tolerance / Habituation 6-49 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING UCS Illness NS UCR New Taste Nausea Learned Association CS CR Application Taste Aversion 6-50 OPERANT CONDITIONING • Better explains voluntary behaviors. • The consequences of a behavior change the probability of that behavior’s occurrence. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-51 17 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 OPERANT CONDITIONING • Helps to explain voluntary behavior • How the consequences of behavior affect the future probability of that behavior • Contiguity – Time between behavior and consequence • Contingency – Is behavior regularly followed by the consequence? 52 6-52 OPERANT CONDITIONING • Thorndike’s Law of Effect – Consequence strengthens or weakens a Stimulus – Response connection • B.F. Skinner – Learning mechanisms the same for all species – Behavior controlled by environmental forces • Shaping – Reward approximations of the desired behavior 53 6-53 OPERANT CONDITIONING • Thorndike’s Law of Effect – consequence strengthens or weakens an S – R connection • B.F. Skinner – expanded on Thorndike’s work – shaping (reward approximations of the desired behavior) Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-54 18 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 OPERANT CONDITIONING B.F. Skinner (19041990) elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect developed behavioral technology 55 6-55 OPERANT CONDITIONING We learn to associate a response and its consequence If we put a coin in and get our candy bar, we are more likely to use that candy machine again! Rewarded for our behavior, increases it. 56 6-56 RESPONSE-CONSEQUENCE LEARNING Learning to associate a response with a consequence. 57 6-57 19 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 OPERANT CHAMBER Skinner Box chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer contains devices to record responses 58 6-58 Figure 6.9 FIGURE 6.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is automatically released. 59 6-59 SKINNER - RATATOUILLE Ok, Disney fans and movie trivia geeks (like myself!) What is the name of the villain in the movie Ratatouille? Skinner – named after Fred Skinner, who used rats (and pigeons) in his research! 60 6-60 20 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT • Reinforcement = Increase behavior – Something you give or take away to increase a desired behavior – Goal of reinforcement is always to increase behavior! • Punishment = Decrease behavior – Something you give or take away to decrease an undesired behavior – Goal of punishment is always to decrease behavior 61 6-61 REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. • Positive Reinforcement – behavior followed by rewarding consequence – rewarding stimulus is “added” • Negative Reinforcement – behavior followed by rewarding consequence – aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “removed” Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-62 POSITIVE & NEGATIVE The terms “Positive” and “Negative" mean different things in Operant Conditioning!! • Positive means something is “added” – Like the “Plus sign” • Negative means something is “taken away” – Like the “Negative sign”. • Positive and Negative do not mean “Good” or “Bad” like we use them in everyday language. 63 6-63 21 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 POSITIVE & NEGATIVE • Operant Conditioning uses Positive & Negative with both Reinforcement and Punishment. • Remember: – – – – Reinforcement = increase behavior Punishment = decrease behavior Positive = to add or give something Negative = to take away something 64 6-64 65 6-65 REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. Positive Reinforcement Teacher praises Behavior Turn homework in on time Negative Reinforcement Teacher stops criticizing What is the effect on the behavior? 6-66 22 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. Positive Reinforcement Skis go faster Behavior Wax skis Negative Reinforcement People stop zooming by on slope What is the effect on the behavior? 6-67 REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. Positive Reinforcement Great music starts playing Behavior Press an odd button on dashboard of friend’s car Negative Reinforcement Annoying music stops playing What is the effect on the behavior? 6-68 REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement increases behavior. Behavior Avoidance Reinforcement Avoid negative stimulus Negative stimulus never occurs What is the effect on the behavior? 6-69 23 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 REINFORCEMENT Learned helplessness: an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes Behavior All kinds of attempts Failure To Reinforce Nothing Works 6-70 TYPES OF REINFORCERS • Primary Reinforcers – innately satisfying • Secondary Reinforcers – become satisfying through experience – repeated association with a pre-existing reinforcer – token economy Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-71 TYPES OF REINFORCERS • Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows • A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s behavior in the cold. Reuters/ Corbis 72 6-72 24 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT • Positive = Add or give something • Reinforcement = to increase behavior • Examples: • • • • • • Giving a child a compliment or candy for a job well done. Getting paid for a completed task. Watching your favorite TV show after doing all your homework. Dolphin gets a fish for doing a trick. Dog gets a treat for sitting, laying, rolling over. Get a candy bar for putting money in the machine. 73 6-73 74 6-74 POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT • Positive = Add or give something • Reinforcement = to increase behavior • Examples: • • • • • • Giving a child a compliment or candy for a job well done. Getting paid for a completed task. Watching your favorite TV show after doing all your homework. Dolphin gets a fish for doing a trick. Dog gets a treat for sitting, laying, rolling over. Get a candy bar for putting money in the machine. 75 6-75 25 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 OPERANT CONDITIONING 76 6-76 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT • Negative = to take away something • Reinforcement = to increase behavior • Examples: • Scratching an insect bite that itches (reinforces scratching behavior by removing itch) • Rubbing itchy eyes (reinforces rubbing behavior by removing itch) • Daydreaming or doodling in boring class (reinforces daydreaming behavior by removing boredom) • Studying when you worry about a test (reinforces study behavior by reducing worry) • Watching TV when you worry about a test (procrastination or giving up on it) (reinforces TV watching behavior by removing worry) • Taking a pain reliever to reduce pain (reinforces pill-taking behavior by removing pain) 77 6-77 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT – SO MISUNDERSTOOD • Most misunderstood concept in Psychology – Often confused with Positive Punishment • What is the difference? – Negative Reinforcement: • Increase behavior by taking away something – Positive Punishment: • Decrease behavior by giving or adding something 78 6-78 26 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT – SO MISUNDERSTOOD 79 6-79 EXAMPLE OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT DID THEY GET IT RIGHT? WHAT MISTAKES DID THEY MAKE? • • Positive Reinforcement - The Big Bang Theory (See Ch. 6 lecture notes for transcript) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-WHk&feature=related Any mistakes made? 80 6-80 MORE FROM BIG BANG THEORY: NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT VS. POSITIVE PUNISHMENT • • The Big Bang Theory (See Ch. 6 lecture notes for transcript) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LhI5h5JZi-U DID THEY GET IT RIGHT? WHAT MISTAKES DID THEY MAKE? 81 6-81 27 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 GHOSTBUSTERS: DID BILL MURRAY GET IT RIGHT? “NO WAY! NOT BILL MURRAY!” • • Ghostbusters, scene one (See Ch. 6 lecture notes for transcript) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fn7-JZq0Yxs 82 6-82 83 6-83 84 6-84 POSITIVE PUNISHMENT VS. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT 28 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 SHAPING • Operant conditioning procedure • Reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target behavior through successive approximations. • Rats may not sniff out the mines the first time, but they are reinforced by being able to discriminate Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc. Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate objects of different shapes, colors and sizes. 85 6-85 SKINNER AND SHAPING • Skinner used mainly pigeons and rats – Watch how he picks a behavior to reinforce to shape the pigeons behavior – He has “tweak” by reinforcing specific behaviors. • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtfQlkGwE2U 86 6-86 TYPES OF REINFORCED BEHAVIOR • Generalization – stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response – responding occurs to similar stimuli • Discrimination – stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced • Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery – behavior decreases when reinforcement stops Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-87 29 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 GENERALIZATION • Generalization – Stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response – Useful in that it facilitates the transfer of behavior across similar situations. – Responding occurs to similar stimuli – Examples: • A secretary who can type on a typewriter can also type on a computer keyboard. • Potty training When a child is learning to use the toilet, rewards are often used to increase the desired behaviors. Typically this experience will take place using the same toilet at the child's home. • So, what happens when you go to Grandma's house? Most likely, the child will quickly recognize the universal characteristics of the toilet, recall its function, and use it just as he would at home. 88 6-88 DISCRIMINATION • Discrimination – Stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced – Useful when a particular response is not appropriate in similar situations. – Examples: • Behavior that is appropriate in a fast-food restaurant, such as eating with your hands, may not be appropriate in a French restaurant. • Telling a dog to sit will be followed by a treat or praise if it sits. Saying "bit" instead lacks the stimulus required to get the dog to sit and for it to receive a treat. 89 6-89 EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY • Extinction and spontaneous recovery – Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops – When a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer, this previously reinforced response decreases in frequency. – Example, a child will stop throwing tantrums if they are no longer reinforced by paying attention to them. • This happens not because the child has forgotten how to kick and scream, but because such behavior fails to produce the desired effect. • Extinction is different from forgetting 90 6-90 30 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 PREMACK PRINCIPLE • Premack Principle – High-probability activities can be used to reinforce low probability activities. – Grandma’s Rule, because your grandmother told you to eat your spinach first and then you can have your dessert. • Examples: – children may be asked to do their homework (sometimes a nonpreferred behavior) before watching TV or playing video games (usually a preferred behavior) – Students do most boring homework assignments before study their favorite subject. 91 6-91 92 6-92 93 6-93 PREMACK PRINCIPLE PUNISHMENT • Punishment = Decrease in Behavior • Positive Punishment – Behavior followed by aversive consequence – Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added” • Negative Punishment – Behavior followed by aversive consequence – Rewarding stimulus is “removed” 31 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 POSITIVE PUNISHMENT • Positive = Something is added • Punishment = Decrease in Behavior • Examples: – Yelling “No!” at a dog jumping up on a person (adds scold to reduce behavior) – Spanking a child – Swatting a dog with a newspaper for peeing on the carpet. – A speeding ticket for speeding. – Squirting a cat for eating the plants. – Burning your hand when you touch a hot stove. – Getting nauseous after eating rotten food. 94 6-94 95 6-95 POSITIVE PUNISHMENT • Positive = Something is added • Punishment = Decrease in Behavior NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT • Negative = Something is removed or taken away • Punishment = Decrease in Behavior • Examples: – Child has a toy taken away for fighting with his sister. – Teen is grounded for misbehavior. – Dolphin trainer walks away with fish bucket when the dolphin gets aggressive. – One person in a relationship stops talking to the other in response to a behavior. – Teen loses privileges for bad behavior (car keys, phone, screen time, etc.) 96 6-96 32 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 PUNISHMENT Ways to decrease behavior 97 6-97 98 6-98 COMPARING OPERANT PROCEDURES CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: PUNISHMENT • Corporal Punishment – Used by 70-90% of parents in the U.S. – Correlational research studies • Problems Associated with Punishment • Why should parents avoid spanking? • Is physical punishment necessary? 99 6-99 33 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 SCHEDULES OF (POSITIVE) REINFORCEMENT • How often can you reinforce the desired behavior? • Positive Reinforcement only • Is giving the reinforcement every time doable? 100 6-100 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT • Continuous Reinforcement • Partial Reinforcement – – – – fixed variable ratio interval Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-101 CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT • Continuous Reinforcement – Reinforce every time desired behavior is performed • Examples: – Using a token to ride the subway. – Putting a dime in the parking meter. – Putting coins in a vending machine to get candy or soda. 102 6-102 34 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 SCHEDULES OF (POSITIVE) REINFORCEMENT • Partial Reinforcement – Reinforce only once in a while or after so many behaviors have happened. • Four Schedules of Partial Reinforcement – – – – Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Variable Interval 103 6-103 PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT TERMS • Fixed: predictable or set • Variable: unpredictable or random • Ratio: Based on number of times behavior is done • Interval: Based on the amount of time that has passed 104 6-104 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: FIXED RATIO (FR) Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforces a response only after a specified and predictable number of responses faster you respond the more rewards you get very high rate of responding – Fixed = predictable or known – Ratio = responses or behaviors 105 6-105 35 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 FIXED RATIO (FR) EXAMPLES Examples: Taking a multi-item test. Garment worker gets paid per each 100 dresses sewn. Frequent-flyer programs. Teenager jobs when getting paid for a completed job, not hourly (ex: $20 each time you mow the neighbor’s lawn). – Doing 20 sit-ups to keep fit. – Mailman on route – must visit the same amount of houses each day to go home. – – – – 106 6-106 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: VARIABLE RATIO (VR) Variable Ratio (VR) reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses average ratios very hard to extinguish because of unpredictability – Variable = unpredictable – Ratio = responses or behaviors 107 6-107 VARIABLE RATIO (VR) EXAMPLES Examples: – Playing a slot machine: • the machine is programmed to pay off after a certain number of responses have been made, but that number keeps changing. • This type of schedules creates a steady rate of responding, because players know if they play long enough, they will win. It could be the next pull. – Hunting: • you probably won’t hit something every time you fire, but it’s not the amount of time that passes, but the number of times you shoot at a prey that will determine how much game you will catch. 108 6-108 36 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 VARIABLE RATIO (VR) EXAMPLES Examples: – Sales commission: • you have to talk to many customers before you make a sale, and you never know whether the next one will buy. – – – – – Phone sales – same as commission. Buying lottery tickets Playing bingo. Signaling while hitchhiking. Fishing: • (think fly-fishing or lure-fishing, where it depends on the cast, not sitting by a bobber, which would be VI). – Custodian cleaning the school • sometimes rooms are already fairly clean, sometimes they have to clean after a lab or “party.” 109 6-109 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: FIXED INTERVAL (FI) • Fixed Interval (FI) – Reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed – Fixed = predictable or known – Interval = amount of time 110 6-110 FIXED INTERVAL (FI) EXAMPLES • Examples: – Test preparation when you know the date and time of the test ahead of time. • As the time goes by and you haven’t studied, you have to make up for it all by the predetermined time –cramming. – Picking up a salary check – every week or once every two weeks. – Looking at your watch during a lecture. – Checking cookies in the oven when you know how long it takes to bake. 111 6-111 37 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI) • Variable Interval (VI) – Reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed – Variable = unpredictable – Interval = amount of time 112 6-112 VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI) EXAMPLES • Examples: – Pop quizzes: • theoretically causes a steady rate of studying because you never know when they’ll occur, so you have to be prepared all the time. – Dialing a friend and getting a busy signal: • this means that you’ll have to keep dialing every few minutes because you don’t know when the line will be available. Reinforcement doesn’t depend on the number of times you dial, but the unknown amount of time that passes. – Watching a soccer game, waiting for a goal. It could happen anytime – if you leave the room, you may miss it, so you have to keep watching continuously. – Speed traps on the highway. 113 6-113 114 6-114 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 38 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT FI: Sudden bursts of responding right before reinforcement – notice the scallop pattern. Cramming the night before a test –Sound familiar? Number of responses 1000 Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio FR– 750 High Rate of respondin 500 g VR: 250 High rate of responding 0 Fixed Interval Rapid responding near time for reinforcement Variable Interval Steady responding 10 20 30 40 50 Time (minutes) 60 115 70 80 VI: Slow Steady Respons e When is that Pop quiz? 6-115 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT • Fixed Ratio (FR) reinforcement follows a set # of behaviors • Variable Ratio (VR) reinforcement follows an unpredictable # of behaviors (e.g., an average) Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-116 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT • Fixed Interval (FI) reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount of time has elapsed • Variable Interval (VI) reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an unpredictable amount of time has elapsed Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-117 39 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-118 PUNISHMENT Punishment decreases behavior. • Positive Punishment – behavior followed by aversive consequence – aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added” • Negative Punishment – behavior followed by aversive consequence – rewarding stimulus is “removed” Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-119 REINFORCEMENT Punishment decreases behavior. Positive Punishment Allergic reaction Behavior Take aspirin for headache Negative Reinforcement Headache goes away Negative Punishment What is the effect on the behavior? Lose sympathetic attention of spouse 6-120 40 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 REINFORCEMENT Punishment decreases behavior. Positive Punishment Get pulled over and ticketed Behavior Show off by speeding Negative Reinforcement Lose gangster who had been tailing you Negative Punishment What is the effect on the behavior? Lose $250 to pay ticket 6-121 OPERANT CONDITIONING • Timing of Consequences – immediate versus delayed reinforcement – immediate versus delayed punishment • Applied Behavior Analysis – behavior modification Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-122 SKINNER’S LEGACY Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences instead of inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will. Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc . 123 6-123 41 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct rewards. LWA-JDL/ Corbis In School 124 6-124 APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance. In Sports 125 6-125 APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now allow employees to share profits and participate in company ownership. At work 126 6-126 42 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING • Children: – reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of these behaviors. –Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence. –Many parenting courses focus on Operant Principles –ABA: Applied Behavior Analysis: Often used as treatment for many disorders of childhood including autism and ADHD. – “Catch ‘em being good”: Skinner believed more in positive reinforcement as opposed to punishment • Dog training: –Focusing on positive reinforcement than punishment 127 6-127 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior (modeling). • Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory • Four Processes of Observational Learning – – – – attention retention motor reproduction reinforcement Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-128 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING • Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior • Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory • Four Processes – – – – Attention Retention Motor reproduction Reinforcement 129 6-129 43 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 130 6-130 OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Observational Learning learning by observing others Modeling process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Prosocial Behavior positive, constructive, helpful behavior opposite of antisocial behavior 131 6-131 Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants. Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk. IMITATION ONSET Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart. 132 6-132 44 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 MIRROR NEURONS Reprinted with permission from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004) © 2004 AAAS. Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning. 133 6-133 BANDURA'S EXPERIMENTS Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments. 134 6-134 ALBERT BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdh7MngntnI&feature=re lated 135 6-135 45 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 APPLICATIONS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects. 136 6-136 POSITIVE OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 137 Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects. 6-137 TELEVISION AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children in elementary school who are exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased aggression. 138 6-138 46 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 MODELING VIOLENCE Glassman/ The Image Works Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression. Children modeling after pro wrestlers 139 6-139 MODELING OR OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING (ALBERT BANDURA) • Model: Someone who serves as an example in observational learning • Occurs by watching and imitating actions of another person or by noting consequences of a person’s actions – Occurs before direct practice is allowed 140 6-140 STEPS TO SUCCESSFUL MODELING Pay attention to model. Remember what was done. Be able to reproduce modeled behavior. If a model is successful or his/her behavior is rewarded, behavior more likely to be imitated. • Bandura created modeling theory with classic Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments • • • • 141 6-141 47 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING • Do cognitions matter? • Does learning involve more than environment-behavior connections? • Purposive Behavior in Humans – goal directed – goal setting – self-regulation and self-monitoring Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-142 COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING • Expectancy Learning – information value • Latent Learning/Implicit Learning • Insight Learning Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-143 COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING • Do cognitions matter? • Many believe that learning involves more than environmentbehavior connections • Purposive Behavior – Much of behavior is goal directed – Goal setting in human behavior – Self-regulation and self-monitoring 144 6-144 48 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING • • • • Expectancy Learning and Information Value Cognitive Maps Latent Learning Insight Learning 145 6-145 146 6-146 OTHER FACTORS IN LEARNING • Biological Constraints – Instinctive drift – Preparedness • Cultural Constraints • Psychological Constraints OTHER FACTORS IN LEARNING • Biological Constraints – instinctive drift – preparedness • Cultural Influences • Psychological Constraints – mindset: fixed v. growth Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-147 49 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 OTHER FACTORS IN LEARNING: CRITICAL CONTROVERSY Learning Styles – visual, aural, kinesthetic – Research suggests there is no actual advantage to instruction within one’s preferred style. 6-148 APPLICATION: HEALTH AND WELLNESS • Classical Conditioning – Immune system functioning • Operant Conditioning – – – – Predictability Control Improvement Outlets for frustration 149 6-149 APPLICATION: HEALTH AND WELLNESS • Behavior Modification Programs – Using operant conditioning principles to change human behavior • Five Steps 1. Define the problem 2. Commit to change 3. Collect data about yourself 4. Design a self-control program 5. Make the program last - maintenance 150 6-150 50 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 SELF-MANAGED BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES • • • • • • • Choose a target behavior Record a baseline Establish goals Choose reinforcers Record your progress Reward successes Adjust your plan as you learn more about your behavior 151 6-151 HOW TO BREAK BAD HABITS • Alternate Responses: Try to get the same reinforcement with a new response. • Extinction: Try to discover what is reinforcing an unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay the reinforcement. • Response Chains: Scramble the chain of events that leads to an undesired response. • Cues and Antecedents: Try to avoid, narrow down, or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit 152 6-152 BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTING • Contracting: State a specific problem behavior you wish to control or a goal you wish to achieve. • State the rewards you will get, privileges you will forfeit, or punishments you will get. • Type the contract, sign it, and get a person you trust to sign it. 153 6-153 51 Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King 3rd Ed Updated 3-15 LEARNING AND HEALTH AND WELLNESS Factors influencing degree of stress – predictability of stressor – control over stressor – improvement of (reduction in) stressor – outlets for frustration Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-154 CHAPTER REVIEW • Describe learning. • Explain classical conditioning. • Explain operant conditioning. • Understand observational learning. • Describe the role of cognition in learning. • Identify biological, cultural, and psychological factors in learning. • Describe how principles of learning apply to health and wellness. Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education. 6-155 52