Download Ch. 6 Learning King 3rd Edition Updated 3-15

Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
Ch. 6 Learning
King 3rd Edition
Updated 3-15
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
Dogs and Conditioning: Some Humor
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Dogs and Conditioning: Some Humor
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
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CHAPTER PREVIEW
Observational
Classical
Conditioning
Learning
Operant
Conditioning
Health and
Wellness
Factors That
Affect Learning
6-5
LEARNING THEORY
Learning
a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs
through experience
• Behaviorism
• Associative Learning /
Conditioning
• Observational Learning
6-6
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
TYPES OF LEARNING
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
• Helps to explain voluntary behavior.
• Performing well in swim competition (behavior)
becomes associated with getting awards (consequence).
6-7
TYPES OF LEARNING
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
• Helps to explain involuntary behavior.
• Control of a response [fear] is shifted to a new stimulus [office].
6-8
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Ivan Pavlov
1849-1936
Russian physician/
neurophysiologist
Nobel Prize in 1904
studied digestive
secretions
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND IVAN PAVLOV
• Russian physiologist who initially was studying
digestion
• Used dogs to study salivation when dogs were
presented with meat powder
• Also known as Pavlovian or Respondent Conditioning
• Reflex: Automatic, nonlearned innate response e.g.,
an eye blink
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VIDEO CLIP: CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
HTTP://WWW.YOUTUBE.COM/WATCH?V=HHQUMFPXUZI
6-11
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical Conditioning
organism comes to associate two stimuli
a neutral stimulus that signals an
unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a
response that anticipates and prepares for the
unconditioned stimulus
Whaaaat? What does that mean???
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: TERMINOLOGY
• Helps to explain involuntary behavior
• Usually happens by accident.
• Anytime you see these terms –
Think Classical Conditioning!!
–
–
–
–
–
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Conditioned Response (CR)
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: TERMINOLOGY
Some tips:
• Unconditioned = Unlearned
– Means you don’t have to learn it for it already happens naturally
• Conditioned = Learned
– Means this is what you get after the conditioning. It is
something that has to be learned.
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: HOW IT HAPPENS
Classical Conditioning happens when:
– Something neutral (neutral stimulus) that doesn’t naturally go
with a reflex (UCS-UCR)
– Gets presented or occurs with the reflex enough times to where
it can replace the original stimulus.
– So the neutral stimulus replaces the unconditioned stimulus
– Now we call it the “conditioned stimulus”
– And the unconditioned response becomes the “conditioned
response”
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV
Example - Pavlov
– Pavlov didn’t set out to have dogs drool at the sound of footsteps
(neutral stimulus).
– The dogs heard the footsteps enough times right before they
were given the food/drooled (UCS – UCR)
– Now, when those poor pups hear the sound of footsteps, they
drool (CS – CR)
– Who needs the food now?
– The neutral stimulus has replace the unconditioned stimulus.
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UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS AND RESPONSE
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally-triggers a response
something that naturally makes you behave or react in
someway – Unconditioned = Unlearned – you naturally behave
this way. You don’t need to learn it.
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned
stimulus
salivation when food is in the mouth
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an
unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned
response
The neutral stimulus always becomes the CS
Conditioned Response (CR)
learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus
The UCR always becomes the CR
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Food
UCS
(Stimulus)
NS
UCR
Sound
Drool
(Stimulus 2)
Learned Association
CS
(Response)
CR
Conditioned
Acquisition/Learning
Stimulus
Neutral Stimulus
Unconditioned
Innate
Stimulus
S-RUnconditioned
Association
ConditionedResponse
Response
6-19
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Food
UCS
(Stimulus)
UCR
NS
Sound
Drool
(Stimulus 2)
CS
Learned Association
(Response)
CR
Contingency:
Contiguity:CS
Time
regularly
between
followed
CS & UCS
by UCS
6-20
Figure 6.2
FIGURE 6.2 An apparatus for Pavlovian conditioning. A tube carries saliva from the dog’s
mouth to a lever that activates a recording device (far left). During conditioning, various
stimuli can be paired with a dish of food placed in front of the dog. The device pictured here is
21
more elaborate than the one Pavlov used in his early experiments.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov’s device for
recording
salivation
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AVLOV ’S CLASSIC EXPERIMENT
Doesn’t do a thing
for me
Before Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
UCR
(salivation)
During Conditioning
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
No
salivation
After Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
UCR
(salivation)
CS
(tone)
CR (salivation)
Yum!!
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: PAVLOV
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
6-24
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Acquisition
the initial stage in classical conditioning
the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned
stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a
conditioned response
in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced
response
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ACQUISITION
The CS needs to come half a second before the US
for acquisition to occur.
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
UCS
(passionate
kiss)
CS
(onion
breath)
CS
(onion
breath)
UCR
(sexual
arousal)
UCS
(passionate
Kiss)
CR
(sexual
arousal)
UCR
(sexual
arousal)
9
Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Food
UCS
(Stimulus)
UCR
NS
Sound
Drool
(Stimulus 2)
Learned Association
CS
(Response)
CR
Generalization
- CRs may also appear after various new NS
that are similar to the CS
6-28
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Food
UCS
(Stimulus)
UCR
NS
Sound
Drool
(Stimulus 2)
Learned Association
CS
(Response)
CR
Discrimination
- CRs appear after the CS but not after other CSs.
• Discrimination generally learned by presenting other CSs
without the UCS
6-29
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Extinction
– CR weakened by presenting the CS without the UCS
– Pavlov rang bell but did not present food; the dog stopped salivating.
• Spontaneous Recovery
– CR recurs after a time
delay and without
additional learning.
– When Pavlov rang the
bell the next day, the
dog salivated.
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
6-30
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
BEHAVIORISM
John B. Watson
viewed psychology as
objective science
study of behavior without
reference to unobservable
mental processes
He believed he could condition a
child to be anything he wanted!
Watson was thought of as a genius
(and a womanizing grandiose jerk)
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WATSON
•
•
•
•
Watson believed child rearing is a science
Babies only experience “Fear, rage, and love”
Did an experiment with an orphan, little Albert.
He never got the
chance to
counter-condition
the baby since
Albert was adopted
out after the
experiment
John Watson conducted the Little Albert experiment at the Johns Hopkins U.’s Phipps Psychology Clinic.
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WATSON’S EXPERIMENT WITH LITTLE ALBERT
• Watson on Albert
– "Albert's life was normal: he was healthy from birth and one of
the best developed youngsters ever brought to the hospital,
weighing twenty-one pounds at nine months of age. He was on
the whole solid and unemotional. His stability was one of the
principal reasons for using him as a subject in this test. We felt
that we could do him relatively little harm by carrying out such
experiments as those outlined below."
• From "Conditioned Emotional Reactions," by John Watson and
Rosalie Rayner, The Journal of Experimental Psychology, February
1920
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
WATSON’S EXPERIMENT WITH LITTLE ALBERT
Footage from 1920 silent film of John Watson and Rosalie Rayner presenting “little Albert” with
different animals before and after conditioning. (Closed captioning for narration coming soon)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FMnhyGozLyE
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Figure 6.7
FIGURE 6.7 Hypothetical example of a CER becoming a phobia. Child approaches dog (a) and
is frightened by it (b). Fear generalizes to other household pets (c) and later to virtually all furry
animals (d).
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
UCS
Bang
UCR
NS
Rabbit
Fear
Learned Association
CS
CR
Phobias
Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert.
6-36
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO LITTLE ALBERT?
• Was he still afraid of furry animals after he was
adopted out?
– Would he freak out if his new parents got him a puppy?
• Many researchers have searched for him
– Some think researchers believe they discovered his real
name (Douglas) and fate
– http://www.apa.org/monitor/2010/01/little-albert.aspx
– “Sadly, the team also discovered that Douglas died at age 6
of acquired hydrocephalus, and was unable to determine if
Douglas' fear of furry objects persisted after he left
Hopkins.”
• However, other researchers think they found the real little
Albert.
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WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO LITTLE ALBERT?
Two candidates for the real identity of little Albert
• Douglas Merritte died in 1925, at age 6, from the hydrocephaly.
According to stories passed down by his family, Merritte never
learned to walk and either crawled or had to be carried. It’s
unclear whether he ever spoke.
• The other baby, Albert Barger, lived a long life, but not quite
long enough for researchers to discover him. He died in 2007, at
age 87.
– He was never aware of the study or that he was born out of wedlock
– By the way, he never did like dogs.
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WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO JOHN WATSON?
•
•
•
•
Soon after the publication of the Little
Albert paper that Watson’s career in
psychology came to a premature end.
He was in his professional prime,
received a raise in salary, and students
had voted him "handsomest professor"
on campus.
Watson had been carrying on an affair
with Rosalie Rayner, a graduate student
and co-author of the Little Albert paper.
She is the unsmiling woman in the film.
Watson’s wife found out, and the
divorce proceedings were front-page
news
– http://psychology.about.com/gi/
o.htm?zi=1/XJ&zTi=1&sdn=psych
ology&cdn=education&tm=199&
f=10&tt=65&bt=5&bts=36&zu=h
ttp%3A//chronicle.com/article/T
he-Search-forPsychologys/146747/
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
WHAT EVER
HAPPENED TO
JOHN
WATSON?
• Watson:
– reinvented himself as an advertising executive
– married Rayner,
– became known as an authority on raising children with his
40
1928 bestseller Psychological Care of the Infant and Child.
6-40
HOW DOES CLASSICAL CONDITIONING APPLY TO
THE REAL WORLD?
• Explains how people develop phobias
– Watson and Rayner (1920) – Little Albert
– White rat (CS) paired with loud noise (UCS)
• How to treat phobias - Counterconditioning
–
–
–
–
Associate CS with new, incompatible CR
CS paired with new UCS
Jones (1924): Peter and the Rabbit
Rabbit paired with food eliminated Peter’s fear
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: APPLICATIONS
• Fearful Emotional Reactions
• Pleasant Emotional Reactions
• Advertising
• Drug Habituation
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING: ADVERTISING
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EXAMPLES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IN HUMANS
• Phobia: Intense, unrealistic, irrational fear of a
specific situation or object (e.g., arachnophobia; fear
of spiders; see the movie!)
• Conditioned Emotional Response: Learned emotional
reaction to a previously neutral stimulus
• Desensitization: Treatment for phobias. Exposing
phobic people gradually to feared stimuli while they
stay calm and relaxed
• Vicarious Classical Conditioning: Learning to respond
emotionally to a stimulus by observing another’s
emotional reactions
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NAME THIS PSYCHOLOGIST!
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
UCS
Bullying
UCR
NS
School
Fear
Learned Association
CS
CR
Friend
Fun
Counterconditioning
- Goal: Associate CS with new, incompatible CR
- Means: CS paired with new UCS
6-46
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
UCS
Ad Actors
NS
UCR
Product
Fun
Learned Association
CS
CR
Application
Advertising
6-47
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Medicine
in Pill
UCS
NS
Pill
Learned Association
CS
UCR
Pain Relief,
immune
response
CR
Application
Placebo Effect
- immune and endocrine responses
6-48
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
UCS
Drug Effect
NS
UCR
Drug
Paraphernalia
Learned Association
CS
Body
Counteracts
Drug
CR
Application
Drug Tolerance / Habituation
6-49
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
UCS
Illness
NS
UCR
New Taste
Nausea
Learned Association
CS
CR
Application
Taste Aversion
6-50
OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Better explains voluntary behaviors.
• The consequences of a behavior
change the probability of that
behavior’s occurrence.
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
6-51
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Helps to explain voluntary behavior
• How the consequences of behavior affect the future probability
of that behavior
• Contiguity – Time between behavior and consequence
• Contingency – Is behavior regularly followed by the
consequence?
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect
– Consequence strengthens or weakens a Stimulus –
Response connection
• B.F. Skinner
– Learning mechanisms the same for all species
– Behavior controlled by environmental forces
• Shaping
– Reward approximations of the desired behavior
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Thorndike’s Law of Effect
– consequence strengthens or
weakens an S – R connection
•
B.F. Skinner
– expanded on Thorndike’s work
– shaping (reward approximations
of the desired behavior)
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
6-54
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
OPERANT CONDITIONING
B.F. Skinner (19041990)
elaborated
Thorndike’s Law of
Effect
developed behavioral
technology
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
We learn to
associate a response
and its consequence
If we put a coin in
and get our candy
bar, we are more
likely to use that
candy machine
again!
Rewarded for our
behavior, increases
it.
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RESPONSE-CONSEQUENCE LEARNING
Learning to associate a response
with a consequence.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
OPERANT CHAMBER
Skinner Box
chamber with a bar or
key that an animal
manipulates to obtain a
food or water reinforcer
contains devices to
record responses
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Figure 6.9
FIGURE 6.9 The Skinner box. This simple device, invented by B. F. Skinner, allows careful study
of operant conditioning. When the rat presses the bar, a pellet of food or a drop of water is
automatically released.
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SKINNER - RATATOUILLE
Ok, Disney fans and movie trivia geeks (like myself!)
What is the name of the villain in the movie
Ratatouille?
Skinner – named after
Fred Skinner, who used rats
(and pigeons) in his research!
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
REINFORCEMENT AND PUNISHMENT
• Reinforcement = Increase behavior
– Something you give or take away to increase a desired behavior
– Goal of reinforcement is always to increase behavior!
• Punishment = Decrease behavior
– Something you give or take away to decrease an undesired
behavior
– Goal of punishment is always to decrease behavior
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REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement increases behavior.
• Positive Reinforcement
– behavior followed by rewarding
consequence
– rewarding stimulus is “added”
• Negative Reinforcement
– behavior followed by rewarding
consequence
– aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is
“removed”
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-62
POSITIVE & NEGATIVE
The terms “Positive” and “Negative" mean different things in
Operant Conditioning!!
• Positive means something is “added”
– Like the “Plus sign”
• Negative means something is “taken away”
– Like the “Negative sign”.
• Positive and Negative do not mean
“Good” or “Bad” like we use them in everyday language.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
POSITIVE & NEGATIVE
• Operant Conditioning uses Positive & Negative with both
Reinforcement and Punishment.
• Remember:
–
–
–
–
Reinforcement = increase behavior
Punishment = decrease behavior
Positive = to add or give something
Negative = to take away something
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REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement increases behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
Teacher praises
Behavior
Turn homework in on time
Negative Reinforcement
Teacher stops criticizing
What is the effect on
the behavior?
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement increases behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
Skis go faster
Behavior
Wax skis
Negative Reinforcement
People stop zooming by on
slope
What is the effect on
the behavior?
6-67
REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement increases behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
Great music starts playing
Behavior
Press an odd button on
dashboard of friend’s car
Negative Reinforcement
Annoying music stops
playing
What is the effect on
the behavior?
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REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement increases behavior.
Behavior
Avoidance Reinforcement
Avoid negative stimulus
Negative stimulus never
occurs
What is the effect on the behavior?
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
REINFORCEMENT
Learned helplessness:
an organism learns it has no control over negative outcomes
Behavior
All kinds of attempts
Failure To Reinforce
Nothing Works
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TYPES OF REINFORCERS
• Primary Reinforcers
– innately satisfying
• Secondary Reinforcers
– become satisfying through
experience
– repeated association with a
pre-existing reinforcer
– token economy
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
6-71
TYPES OF REINFORCERS
• Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
• A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat’s
behavior in the cold.
Reuters/ Corbis
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
• Positive = Add or give something
• Reinforcement = to increase behavior
• Examples:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Giving a child a compliment or candy for a job well done.
Getting paid for a completed task.
Watching your favorite TV show after doing all your homework.
Dolphin gets a fish for doing a trick.
Dog gets a treat for sitting, laying, rolling over.
Get a candy bar for putting money in the machine.
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POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
• Positive = Add or give something
• Reinforcement = to increase behavior
• Examples:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Giving a child a compliment or candy for a job well done.
Getting paid for a completed task.
Watching your favorite TV show after doing all your homework.
Dolphin gets a fish for doing a trick.
Dog gets a treat for sitting, laying, rolling over.
Get a candy bar for putting money in the machine.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
OPERANT CONDITIONING
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NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
• Negative = to take away something
• Reinforcement = to increase behavior
• Examples:
• Scratching an insect bite that itches (reinforces scratching behavior
by removing itch)
• Rubbing itchy eyes (reinforces rubbing behavior by removing itch)
• Daydreaming or doodling in boring class (reinforces daydreaming
behavior by removing boredom)
• Studying when you worry about a test (reinforces study behavior
by reducing worry)
• Watching TV when you worry about a test (procrastination or
giving up on it) (reinforces TV watching behavior by removing
worry)
• Taking a pain reliever to reduce pain (reinforces pill-taking
behavior by removing pain)
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NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT – SO MISUNDERSTOOD
• Most misunderstood concept in Psychology
– Often confused with Positive Punishment
• What is the difference?
– Negative Reinforcement:
• Increase behavior by taking away something
– Positive Punishment:
• Decrease behavior by giving or adding something
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT – SO MISUNDERSTOOD
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EXAMPLE OF POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
DID THEY GET IT RIGHT? WHAT MISTAKES DID THEY MAKE?
•
•
Positive Reinforcement - The Big Bang Theory (See Ch. 6 lecture notes for
transcript)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JA96Fba-WHk&feature=related
Any mistakes made?
80
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MORE FROM BIG BANG THEORY: NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT VS.
POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
•
•
The Big Bang Theory (See Ch. 6 lecture notes for transcript)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LhI5h5JZi-U
DID THEY GET IT RIGHT? WHAT MISTAKES DID THEY MAKE?
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
GHOSTBUSTERS: DID BILL MURRAY GET IT RIGHT?
“NO WAY! NOT BILL MURRAY!”
•
•
Ghostbusters, scene one (See Ch. 6 lecture notes for transcript)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fn7-JZq0Yxs
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POSITIVE PUNISHMENT VS. NEGATIVE
REINFORCEMENT
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
SHAPING
• Operant conditioning procedure
• Reinforcers guide behavior towards the desired target
behavior through successive approximations.
• Rats may not sniff out the mines the first time, but they
are reinforced by being able to discriminate
Fred Bavendam/ Peter Arnold, Inc.
Khamis Ramadhan/ Panapress/ Getty Images
A rat shaped to sniff mines. A manatee shaped to discriminate
objects of different shapes, colors and sizes.
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SKINNER AND SHAPING
• Skinner used mainly pigeons and rats
– Watch how he picks a behavior to reinforce to shape the
pigeons behavior
– He has “tweak” by reinforcing specific behaviors.
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtfQlkGwE2U
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TYPES OF REINFORCED BEHAVIOR
• Generalization
– stimulus “sets the occasion” for the
response
– responding occurs to similar stimuli
• Discrimination
– stimuli signal when behavior will or
will not be reinforced
• Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
– behavior decreases when
reinforcement stops
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
6-87
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
GENERALIZATION
• Generalization
– Stimulus “sets the occasion” for the response
– Useful in that it facilitates the transfer of behavior across similar
situations.
– Responding occurs to similar stimuli
– Examples:
• A secretary who can type on a typewriter can also type on a computer
keyboard.
• Potty training When a child is learning to use the toilet, rewards are
often used to increase the desired behaviors. Typically this experience
will take place using the same toilet at the child's home.
• So, what happens when you go to Grandma's house? Most likely, the
child will quickly recognize the universal characteristics of the toilet,
recall its function, and use it just as he would at home.
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DISCRIMINATION
• Discrimination
– Stimuli signal when behavior will or will not be reinforced
– Useful when a particular response is not appropriate in similar
situations.
– Examples:
• Behavior that is appropriate in a fast-food restaurant, such as eating
with your hands, may not be appropriate in a French restaurant.
• Telling a dog to sit will be followed by a treat or praise if it sits. Saying
"bit" instead lacks the stimulus required to get the dog to sit and for it
to receive a treat.
89
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EXTINCTION AND SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
• Extinction and spontaneous recovery
– Behavior decreases when reinforcement stops
– When a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer, this
previously reinforced response decreases in frequency.
– Example, a child will stop throwing tantrums if they are no longer
reinforced by paying attention to them.
• This happens not because the child has forgotten how to kick and
scream, but because such behavior fails to produce the desired effect.
• Extinction is different from forgetting
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
PREMACK PRINCIPLE
• Premack Principle
– High-probability activities can be used to reinforce low probability
activities.
– Grandma’s Rule, because your grandmother told you to eat your
spinach first and then you can have your dessert.
• Examples:
– children may be asked to do their homework (sometimes a nonpreferred behavior) before watching TV or playing video games
(usually a preferred behavior)
– Students do most boring homework assignments before study
their favorite subject.
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92
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93
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PREMACK PRINCIPLE
PUNISHMENT
• Punishment = Decrease in Behavior
• Positive Punishment
– Behavior followed by aversive consequence
– Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added”
• Negative Punishment
– Behavior followed by aversive consequence
– Rewarding stimulus is “removed”
31
Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
• Positive = Something is added
• Punishment = Decrease in Behavior
• Examples:
– Yelling “No!” at a dog jumping up on a person (adds scold to
reduce behavior)
– Spanking a child
– Swatting a dog with a newspaper for peeing on the carpet.
– A speeding ticket for speeding.
– Squirting a cat for eating the plants.
– Burning your hand when you touch a hot stove.
– Getting nauseous after eating rotten food.
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95
6-95
POSITIVE PUNISHMENT
• Positive = Something is added
• Punishment = Decrease in Behavior
NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT
• Negative = Something is removed or taken away
• Punishment = Decrease in Behavior
• Examples:
– Child has a toy taken away for fighting with his sister.
– Teen is grounded for misbehavior.
– Dolphin trainer walks away with fish bucket when the dolphin
gets aggressive.
– One person in a relationship stops talking to the other in
response to a behavior.
– Teen loses privileges for bad behavior (car keys, phone, screen
time, etc.)
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
PUNISHMENT
Ways to decrease behavior
97
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98
6-98
COMPARING
OPERANT PROCEDURES
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY: PUNISHMENT
• Corporal Punishment
– Used by 70-90% of parents in the U.S.
– Correlational research studies
• Problems Associated with Punishment
• Why should parents avoid spanking?
• Is physical punishment necessary?
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
SCHEDULES OF (POSITIVE) REINFORCEMENT
• How often can you reinforce the desired behavior?
• Positive Reinforcement only
• Is giving the reinforcement
every time doable?
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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
• Continuous Reinforcement
• Partial Reinforcement
–
–
–
–
fixed
variable
ratio
interval
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-101
CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT
• Continuous Reinforcement
– Reinforce every time desired behavior is performed
• Examples:
– Using a token to ride the subway.
– Putting a dime in the parking meter.
– Putting coins in a vending machine to get candy or soda.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
SCHEDULES OF (POSITIVE) REINFORCEMENT
• Partial Reinforcement
– Reinforce only once in a while or after so many behaviors have
happened.
• Four Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
–
–
–
–
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
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PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT TERMS
• Fixed: predictable or set
• Variable: unpredictable or random
• Ratio: Based on number of times behavior is done
• Interval: Based on the amount of time that has passed
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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT:
FIXED RATIO (FR)
Fixed Ratio (FR)
reinforces a response only after a specified and predictable
number of responses
faster you respond the more rewards you get
very high rate of responding
– Fixed = predictable or known
– Ratio = responses or behaviors
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35
Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
FIXED RATIO (FR) EXAMPLES
Examples:
Taking a multi-item test.
Garment worker gets paid per each 100 dresses sewn.
Frequent-flyer programs.
Teenager jobs when getting paid for a completed job, not hourly
(ex: $20 each time you mow the neighbor’s lawn).
– Doing 20 sit-ups to keep fit.
– Mailman on route – must visit the same amount of houses each
day to go home.
–
–
–
–
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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT:
VARIABLE RATIO (VR)
Variable Ratio (VR)
reinforces a response after an unpredictable
number of responses
average ratios
very hard to extinguish because of
unpredictability
– Variable = unpredictable
– Ratio = responses or behaviors
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VARIABLE RATIO (VR) EXAMPLES
Examples:
– Playing a slot machine:
• the machine is programmed
to pay off after a certain number
of responses have been made,
but that number keeps changing.
• This type of schedules creates a steady rate of
responding, because players know if they play long
enough, they will win. It could be the next pull.
– Hunting:
• you probably won’t hit something every time you fire,
but it’s not the amount of time that passes, but the
number of times you shoot at a prey that will
determine how much game you will catch.
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36
Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
VARIABLE RATIO (VR) EXAMPLES
Examples:
– Sales commission:
• you have to talk to many customers before you make a sale,
and you never know whether the next one will buy.
–
–
–
–
–
Phone sales – same as commission.
Buying lottery tickets
Playing bingo.
Signaling while hitchhiking.
Fishing:
• (think fly-fishing or lure-fishing, where it depends on the cast,
not sitting by a bobber, which would be VI).
– Custodian cleaning the school
• sometimes rooms are already fairly clean, sometimes they
have to clean after a lab or “party.”
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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT: FIXED INTERVAL (FI)
• Fixed Interval (FI)
– Reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after a set amount
of time has elapsed
– Fixed = predictable or known
– Interval = amount of time
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FIXED INTERVAL (FI) EXAMPLES
• Examples:
– Test preparation when you know the date and time of the test
ahead of time.
• As the time goes by and you haven’t studied, you have to make up
for it all by the predetermined time –cramming.
– Picking up a salary check – every week or once every two
weeks.
– Looking at your watch during a lecture.
– Checking cookies in the oven when you know how long it takes
to bake.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT:
VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI)
• Variable Interval (VI)
– Reinforcement follows behavior that occurs after an
unpredictable amount of time has elapsed
– Variable = unpredictable
– Interval = amount of time
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VARIABLE INTERVAL (VI) EXAMPLES
• Examples:
– Pop quizzes:
• theoretically causes a steady rate of studying because you never
know when they’ll occur, so you have to be prepared all the time.
– Dialing a friend and getting a busy signal:
• this means that you’ll have to keep dialing every few minutes
because you don’t know when the line will be available.
Reinforcement doesn’t depend on the number of times you dial,
but the unknown amount of time that passes.
– Watching a soccer game, waiting for a goal. It could happen
anytime – if you leave the room, you may miss it, so you have to
keep watching continuously.
– Speed traps on the highway.
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SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
38
Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
FI: Sudden bursts of responding right before
reinforcement – notice the scallop pattern.
Cramming the night before a test –Sound
familiar?
Number of
responses
1000
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
FR–
750
High
Rate of
respondin
500
g
VR:
250
High rate of
responding
0
Fixed Interval
Rapid responding
near time for
reinforcement
Variable Interval
Steady responding
10
20
30
40
50
Time (minutes)
60 115 70
80
VI:
Slow
Steady
Respons
e
When is
that Pop
quiz?
6-115
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
• Fixed Ratio (FR)
reinforcement follows a set #
of behaviors
• Variable Ratio (VR)
reinforcement follows an
unpredictable # of behaviors
(e.g., an average)
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-116
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
• Fixed Interval (FI)
reinforcement follows behavior that
occurs after a set amount of time has
elapsed
• Variable Interval (VI)
reinforcement follows behavior that
occurs after an unpredictable amount
of time has elapsed
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-117
39
Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-118
PUNISHMENT
Punishment decreases behavior.
• Positive Punishment
– behavior followed by aversive consequence
– aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is “added”
• Negative Punishment
– behavior followed by aversive consequence
– rewarding stimulus is “removed”
Copyright © 2014 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
6-119
REINFORCEMENT
Punishment decreases behavior.
Positive Punishment
Allergic reaction
Behavior
Take aspirin for headache
Negative Reinforcement
Headache goes away
Negative Punishment
What is the effect on
the behavior?
Lose sympathetic attention
of spouse
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
REINFORCEMENT
Punishment decreases behavior.
Positive Punishment
Get pulled over and
ticketed
Behavior
Show off by speeding
Negative Reinforcement
Lose gangster who had
been tailing you
Negative Punishment
What is the effect on
the behavior?
Lose $250 to pay ticket
6-121
OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Timing of Consequences
– immediate versus delayed reinforcement
– immediate versus delayed punishment
• Applied Behavior Analysis
– behavior modification
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-122
SKINNER’S LEGACY
Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by
external influences instead of inner thoughts and
feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized
people by neglecting their free will.
Falk/ Photo Researchers, Inc
.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching
machines that shape learning in small steps and
provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
LWA-JDL/ Corbis
In School
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APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic
performance.
In Sports
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6-125
APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies
now allow employees to share profits and
participate in company ownership.
At work
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42
Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING
• Children:
– reinforcing good behavior increases the occurrence of
these behaviors.
–Ignoring unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.
–Many parenting courses focus on Operant Principles
–ABA: Applied Behavior Analysis: Often used as
treatment for many disorders of childhood including
autism and ADHD.
– “Catch ‘em being good”: Skinner believed more in
positive reinforcement as opposed to punishment
• Dog training:
–Focusing on positive reinforcement than punishment
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OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Learning that occurs when a person
observes and imitates behavior (modeling).
• Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory
• Four Processes of
Observational Learning
–
–
–
–
attention
retention
motor reproduction
reinforcement
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-128
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
• Learning that occurs when a person observes and imitates
behavior
• Albert Bandura – Social Cognitive Theory
• Four Processes
–
–
–
–
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Reinforcement
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
130
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OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Observational Learning
learning by observing others
Modeling
process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Prosocial Behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior
opposite of antisocial behavior
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Meltzoff, A.N. (1998). Imitation of televised models by infants.
Child Development, 59 1221-1229. Photos Courtesy of A.N. Meltzoff and M. Hanuk.
IMITATION ONSET
Learning by observation
begins early in life. This
14-month-old child
imitates the adult on TV in
pulling a toy apart.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
MIRROR NEURONS
Reprinted with permission from the American
Association for the Advancement of Science,
Subiaul et al., Science 305: 407-410 (2004)
© 2004 AAAS.
Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the
brains of animals and humans that are active during
observational learning.
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BANDURA'S EXPERIMENTS
Courtesy of Albert Bandura, Stanford University
Bandura's Bobo doll
study (1961) indicated
that individuals (children)
learn through imitating
others who receive
rewards and
punishments.
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ALBERT BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vdh7MngntnI&feature=re
lated
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
APPLICATIONS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Unfortunately,
Bandura’s studies show
that antisocial models
(family, neighborhood
or TV) may have
antisocial effects.
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POSITIVE OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
137
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may
have prosocial effects.
6-137
TELEVISION AND OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Ron Chapple/ Taxi/ Getty Images
Gentile et al., (2004)
shows that children in
elementary school who
are exposed to violent
television, videos, and
video games express
increased aggression.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
MODELING VIOLENCE
Glassman/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Research shows that viewing media violence leads
to an increased expression of aggression.
Children modeling after pro wrestlers
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MODELING OR OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
(ALBERT BANDURA)
• Model: Someone who serves as an example in
observational learning
• Occurs by watching and imitating actions of
another person or by noting consequences of
a person’s actions
– Occurs before direct practice is allowed
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STEPS TO SUCCESSFUL MODELING
Pay attention to model.
Remember what was done.
Be able to reproduce modeled behavior.
If a model is successful or his/her behavior is
rewarded, behavior more likely to be imitated.
• Bandura created modeling theory with classic
Bo-Bo Doll (inflatable clown) experiments
•
•
•
•
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
• Do cognitions matter?
• Does learning involve more than
environment-behavior connections?
• Purposive Behavior in Humans
– goal directed
– goal setting
– self-regulation and
self-monitoring
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-142
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
• Expectancy Learning
– information value
• Latent Learning/Implicit Learning
• Insight Learning
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-143
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
• Do cognitions matter?
• Many believe that learning involves more than environmentbehavior connections
• Purposive Behavior
– Much of behavior is goal directed
– Goal setting in human behavior
– Self-regulation and self-monitoring
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
•
•
•
•
Expectancy Learning and Information Value
Cognitive Maps
Latent Learning
Insight Learning
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146
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OTHER FACTORS IN LEARNING
• Biological Constraints
– Instinctive drift
– Preparedness
• Cultural Constraints
• Psychological Constraints
OTHER FACTORS IN LEARNING
• Biological Constraints
– instinctive drift
– preparedness
• Cultural Influences
• Psychological Constraints
– mindset: fixed v. growth
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McGraw-Hill Education.
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49
Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
OTHER FACTORS IN LEARNING:
CRITICAL CONTROVERSY
Learning Styles
– visual, aural, kinesthetic
– Research suggests there is no
actual advantage to instruction
within one’s preferred style.
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APPLICATION:
HEALTH AND WELLNESS
• Classical Conditioning
– Immune system functioning
• Operant Conditioning
–
–
–
–
Predictability
Control
Improvement
Outlets for frustration
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APPLICATION:
HEALTH AND WELLNESS
• Behavior Modification Programs
– Using operant conditioning principles to change human
behavior
• Five Steps
1. Define the problem
2. Commit to change
3. Collect data about yourself
4. Design a self-control program
5. Make the program last - maintenance
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
SELF-MANAGED BEHAVIORAL PRINCIPLES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Choose a target behavior
Record a baseline
Establish goals
Choose reinforcers
Record your progress
Reward successes
Adjust your plan as you learn more about your
behavior
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HOW TO BREAK BAD HABITS
• Alternate Responses: Try to get the same
reinforcement with a new response.
• Extinction: Try to discover what is reinforcing an
unwanted response and remove, avoid, or delay
the reinforcement.
• Response Chains: Scramble the chain of events that
leads to an undesired response.
• Cues and Antecedents: Try to avoid, narrow down,
or remove stimuli that elicit the bad habit
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BEHAVIORAL CONTRACTING
• Contracting: State a specific problem behavior
you wish to control or a goal you wish to
achieve.
• State the rewards you will get, privileges you
will forfeit, or punishments you will get.
• Type the contract, sign it, and get a person
you trust to sign it.
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Psy 300 Ch. 6 Learning Slide Notes, King
3rd Ed Updated 3-15
LEARNING AND
HEALTH AND WELLNESS
Factors influencing degree of stress
– predictability of stressor
– control over stressor
– improvement of (reduction in)
stressor
– outlets for frustration
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McGraw-Hill Education.
6-154
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Describe learning.
• Explain classical conditioning.
• Explain operant conditioning.
• Understand observational learning.
• Describe the role of cognition in learning.
• Identify biological, cultural, and psychological factors in
learning.
• Describe how principles of learning apply to health and
wellness.
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McGraw-Hill Education.
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