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Learning is a relatively permanent or stable change in behavior as a result of experience. Associative Learning- learning to associate 2 events, they occur together, the events may be 2 stimuli (classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (operant conditioning) The Process of learning associations • Classical Conditioning- we learn to associate 2 stimuli and thus to anticipate events • Operant Conditioning- we learn to associate a response and its consequence and thus to repeat acts followed by rewards and avoid acts followed by punishment • Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered that dogs, too, learn to associate one thing with another when food is involved. • He taught the dogs to drool when he rang a bell! • Ivan Pavlov, “Pavlovian Conditioning” • Unconditioned Stimulus (US) –stimulus that causes a response that is automatic, not learned • Unconditioned Response (UR)- that automatic response is the UR, a response that is not learned • Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- a previously neutral stimulus that, because of pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, now causes a conditioned response • Conditioned Response (CR)- a learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral or meaningless, (like the bell!) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nE8pFWP5QDM (The Office) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fbZCwEozxp8 (Parks & Rec- deprogram Jam) • Forward Conditioning- the CS is presented before the US, can be further divided into: – Delay Conditioning- the CS is present until the US begins – Trace Conditioning- CS is removed sometime before the US is presented • Simultaneous Conditioning-CS and US are presented at same time • Backward Conditioning- US is presented before the CS (usually ineffective) • John B. Watson & Rosalie Rayner • Conditioned fear in baby “Albert” • • • • • • • Acquisition-pairing of the natural and neutral stimuli (loud noise and rat) have occurred enough times that the neutral stimulus alone will elicit the conditional response (crying) Extinction-elimination of the conditioned response, can be achieved by presenting the CS without the US repeatedly (the white rate without the loud noise) Spontaneous Recovery- the original response disappears on its own, but then is elicited again by the previous CS at a later time, possible under certain circumstances Generalization- responding to a stimulus that is similar to the CS (Albert made generalizations and feared the white rat-CS but also other white stimuli-white coat) Discrimination- if Albert could distinguish among similar but distinct stimuli Taste Aversion- “Garcia Effect”- if you become ill after eating a certain food, the taste would become a CS for nausea, now the CR. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OMDpK1lMeQY (Parks & Rec Garcia Effect) • • • • Also called Instrumental Conditioning Used in training people or animals to learn a behavior from consequences Like classical conditioning, it includes acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination But…classical conditioning involves respondent behaviorbehavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (such as salivating in response to food) Operant conditioning involves operant behavior- the act operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli. Is the organism learning associations between events that it doesn’t control? Or is it learning associations between its behavior and resulting events? • The Mac Daddy of Operant Conditioning. • Nurture guy through and through. • Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to prove his concepts. • B. F. Skinner- studied Behaviorism (John B. Watson founded Behaviorism) • Law of Effect- founded by Edward L Thorndikerewarded behavior is likely to recur • Using this Law of Effect Skinner taught pigeons how to walk in a figure 8 and even play ping-pong! • • Also known as “The Operant Chamber”- typically soundproof, with a bar or key that an animal presses or pecks to release a reward of food or water, and a device that records these responses Skinner used Shaping- procedure in which reinforcers, such as food, gradually guide an animal’s actions toward a desired behavior Using the method of Successive Approximations, you reward responses that are ever-closer to the final desired behavior, and you ignore all other responses. By making rewards contingent on desired behaviors, researchers and animal trainers gradually shape complex behaviors. • Reinforcement- any consequence that strengthens behavior • Primary Reinforcers-getting food while hungry or being relieved of electric shock, innately satisfying • Conditioned Reinforcers- Secondary Reinforcers- are learned, they get their power through association with primary reinforcers. If the rat in a Skinner Box learns that a light is the secondary reinforcer associated with food (primary), the rat will work to turn on the light • Reinforcement- any consequence that strengthens behavior • Primary Reinforcers-getting food while hungry or being relieved of electric shock, innately satisfying • Conditioned Reinforcers- Secondary Reinforcers- are learned, they get their power through association with primary reinforcers. If the rat in a Skinner Box learns that a light is the secondary reinforcer associated with food (primary), the rat will work to turn on the light Primary v. Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer • Things that are in themselves rewarding. Secondary Reinforcer • Things we have learned to value. • Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything) Reinforces • A reinforcer is anything the INCREASES a behavior. Positive Reinforcement: • The addition of something pleasant. Negative Reinforcement: • The removal of something unpleasant. • Two types of NR • Escape Learning • Avoidance Learning (Getting kicked out of class versus cutting class) Positive or Negative? Putting your seatbelt on. Faking sick to avoid AP Psych class. Studying for a test. Having a headache and taking an aspirin. Breaking out of jail. Getting a kiss for doing the dishes. Punishment Meant to decrease a behavior. Positive Punishment • Addition of something unpleasant. Negative Punishment (Omission Training) • Removal of something pleasant. Punishment works best when it is immediately done after behavior and if it is harsh! Reinforcement Schedules How often to you give the reinforcer? • Every time or just sometimes you see the behavior. Continuous v. Partial Reinforcement • • • • Continuous Reinforce the behavior EVERYTIME the behavior is exhibited. Usually done when the subject is first learning to make the association. Acquisition comes really fast. But so does extinction. Partial • Reinforce the behavior only SOME of the times it is exhibited. • Acquisition comes more slowly. • But is more resistant to extinction. • FOUR types of Partial Reinforcement schedules. Ratio Schedules Fixed Ratio • Provides a reinforcement after a SET number of responses. Variable Ratio • Provides a reinforcement after a RANDOM number of responses. • Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction. Fixed Ration- She gets a manicure for every 5 pounds she loses. Interval Schedules Fixed Interval Variable Interval • Requires a SET amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement. • Requires a RANDOM amount of time to elapse before giving the reinforcement. • Very hard to get acquisition but also very resistant to extinction. Fixed Interval: She gets a manicure for every 7 days she stays on her diet. Observational Learning • Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll • We learn through modeling behavior from others. • Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory Click pic to see some observational learning. Latent Leaning Edward Toleman Three rat experiment. Latent means hidden. Sometimes learning is not immediately evident. • Rats needed a reason to display what they have learned. • • • • Insight Learning • Wolfgang Kohler and his Chimpanzees. • Some animals learn through the “ah ha” experience. Click pic to see insight learning.