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Chapter 9 – Learning Principles and Applications
Section 1 – Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning – when a person’s or animal’s old response becomes
attached to a new stimulus.
Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavioral tendency that results
from experience
Conditioned Responses to Music Soundtracks (Think of some movie soundtracks;
what emotions are evoked from some of them? Are there some songs that are
attached to certain events in your life that evoke specific emotions in you? Take a
couple of minutes and write down the song, the emotion and why.)
A. Classical Conditioning
a. Neutral Stimulus (NS) – a stimulus that has nothing to do with the
response prior to conditioning
b. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – an event that leads to a certain,
predictable response, without any previous training
c. Unconditioned Response (UCR) – a reaction that occurs naturally
and automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented, a
reflex
d. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – a neutral event that elicits a given
response after training when paired with a UCS
e. Conditioned Response (CR) – a learned reaction to a conditioned
Stimulus
f. Classical conditioning helps people and animals adapt to a new
environment, also to avoid danger
g. The acquisition of a CR occurs gradually not all at once
B. Generalization and Discrimination
a. Generalization – when an animal responds to a second stimulus that
is similar to the original CS without prior training
i. Circle and then an Oval
b. Discrimination – the ability to respond differently to different stimuli
C. Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
a. Extinction – the gradual disappearance of a CR when the CS is
presented without the UCS
b. Spontaneous Recovery – when the CR reappears without the UCS
appearing with the CS
D. Classical Conditioning and Human Behavior
a. Baby Albert (Page 249 Case Study) John B. Watson and Rosalie
Rayner
i. The Development of emotional responses in children
ii. Very unethical
Complete Case Study Questions pg. 249
b. Bed Wetting
i. Bell and Pad
ii. When the first drop hits the sheets, an alarm goes off waking
the child
c. Taste Aversions – becoming ill after you’ve eaten something.
i. Even if the food hasn’t caused the sickness, you may still
attribute the illness to the food and thus that food will cause
you to feel nauseated when thinking about it or seeing it
ii. Teacher/student examples
Dr. Zimbardo Video #8
Section 1 Review
Section 2 – Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning – learning from the consequences of our behavior
a. Depending on the effect of these behaviors, the learner will repeat or
eliminate these behaviors (get rewards or avoid punishment)
i. Differs from Classical condition in two ways
1. The learner must behave in a certain way that produces some
consequence. The learner must take an active role.
2. Learning occurs with automatic, reflexive behaviors as well as a
wide range of voluntary behaviors
b. B.F. Skinner
A. Reinforcement
Reinforcement – a stimulus or event that increases the likelihood that
behavior will be repeated
a. Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
i. Stimuli that are associated with receiving rewards or punishment
ii. Primary reinforcers – one that satisfies a biological need such as
sleep, hunger or thirst
iii. Secondary reinforcers – is one that when paired with a primary
reinforcer and through classical conditioning has acquired value
and reinforcement
B. Schedules of Reinforcement
a. A stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that a behavior will be
repeated
b. Schedules of Reinforcement (Chart on Page 254)
1. Fixed-ratio schedule – reinforcement depends on a specific quantity
of responses, such as rewarding every fourth response
2. Variable-ratio schedule – requires that an average number of
responses be made for each reinforcement
3. Fixed-interval schedule – reinforcement is available after a predetermined time. Hours, minutes, days but always the same.
4. Variable-interval schedule – the time at which a reinforcer will be
available varies throughout the conditioning procedure.
C. Shaping and Chaining
1. Shaping – a process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new
responses out of old. Example: teaching someone to do something
it has never done before and would never do if left to itself.
2. Response Chains– in order to learn a skill, a person must be able to
put various new responses together (responses that follow one
another in a sequence). Each response produces the signal for the
next one
Factors that Affect Learning
 Feedback – finding out the results of an action or performance
o Without it you may repeat the same mistakes over and over,
thus developing a skill incorrectly
 Transfer
o Positive transfer - when previously learned responses help you
learn a new task
o Negative transfer – when a previously learned task hinders
learning
 Practice – the repetition of a task
Also can use mental practice to improve things without physical
intervention or interaction
C. Aversive Controls
Unpleasant consequences to certain behavioral learning
1. Two types aversive stimuli - negative reinforcers and punishers
 Negative reinforcement – a painful or unpleasant stimulus is
removed or is not applied at all if a certain kind of behavior occurs.
This removal of unpleasant consequences increases the frequency
of a behavior. There are two types:
 Escape conditioning – the behavior a person engages in
causes an unpleasant event to stop
 Avoidance conditioning – the person’s behavior has the
effect of preventing an unpleasant situation from happening
 Punishment – stopping a behavior by linking it with an action.
These actions (spank, etc.) are punishers
 An unpleasant consequence occurs and decreases the
frequency of the behavior that produced it
 Differences between the negative reinforcement and punishment
 Negative reinforcement – escape or avoidance behavior is
repeated
 Punishment – behavior that is punished is not repeated
 Disadvantages to using aversive stimuli in changing behavior
 Can produce unwanted side effects such as rage, aggression
and fear
 People learn to avoid the person delivering the aversive
consequences
 Punishment is likely to suppress rather than eliminate
behaviors
Section 2 Review
Section 3 – Social Learning
Learning behaviors through people modeling behaviors. Social learning theorists
view learning as purposeful, going beyond mechanical responses to stimuli or
reinforcement
A. Cognitive Learning
a. Cognitive Learning – focuses on how information is obtained, processed
and organized
i. Concerned with the mental processes involved in learning
ii. Cognitive Map – a mental picture of a place or event
iii. Latent Learning – learning not demonstrated by an immediate
observable change in behavior at the time of learning
D. Learned Helplessness
i.
Learned Laziness – if rewards come without effort, a person
never learns to work
ii.
Learned Helplessness – if pain comes no matter how hard
someone tries a person gives up, or if repeated attempts to
control a situation fails, the subject believes that the situation
is uncontrollable
o Believed to be a major cause of depression
o 3 elements of learned helplessness
1. temporary (sick)
2. stability (never will be good)
3. global (subject is just dumb)
a. 2 and 3 are internal
4. external (that was just a bad test)
E. Modeling
a. Modeling – learning by imitating others, copying behavior (general term)
i.
3 Types of Modeling
1. Modeling – the behaviors of others increases the chances
that we will do the same thing
2. Observational Learning – imitation
3. Disinhibition – when an observer watches someone else
engage in a threatening activity without being punished, the
observer may find it easier to engage in that behavior later
F. Behavior Modification
a. Behavior Modification- the systematic application of learning principles
(classical/operant conditionings and social learning) to change people’s
actions and feelings
i. 3 Types of Behavior Modification
1. Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
a. Based on Operant Conditioning
b. Breaking down information into smaller units
c. Response chains
2. Token Economies
a. Children receive secondary reinforcers for positive
things (grades, behavior)
b. Cash in tokens for rewards
3. Self Control
a. Statistically keep track of behaviors
b. Set up a behavioral contract
i. Choose a reinforcer and make it depend
upon something
Section 3 Review
Complete Chapter 9 Review- Reviewing Vocabulary, Recalling Facts and Critical
Thinking